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5. Composite electrolytes and interface designs for progressive solid‐state sodium batteries.

Author

Hou, Junyu, Zhu, Tianke, Wang, Gang, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Sun, Wu, Lei, Xingyu, Yuan, Qunyao, Sun, Dalin, and Zhao, Jie

Subjects
ENERGY storage, IONIC conductivity, ALTERNATIVE fuels, RAW materials, ELECTROLYTES
Abstract

Solid‐state sodium batteries (SSSBs) are poised to replace lithium‐ion batteries as viable alternatives for energy storage systems owing to their high safety and reliability, abundance of raw material, and low costs. However, as the core constituent of SSSBs, solid‐state electrolytes (SSEs) with low ionic conductivities at room temperature (RT) and unstable interfaces with electrodes hinder the development of SSSBs. Recently, composite SSEs (CSSEs), which inherit the desirable properties of two phases, high RT ionic conductivity, and high interfacial stability, have emerged as viable alternatives; however, their governing mechanism remains unclear. In this review, we summarize the recent research progress of CSSEs, classified into inorganic–inorganic, polymer–polymer, and inorganic–polymer types, and discuss their structure–property relationship in detail. Moreover, the CSSE–electrode interface issues and effective strategies to promote intimate and stable interfaces are summarized. Finally, the trends in the design of CSSEs and CSSE–electrode interfaces are presented, along with the future development prospects of high‐performance SSSBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2024
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7. The Utilization of Ionic Liquid in Aqueous Electrolyte with Nitrogen and Sulfur Co-Doped Reduced Graphene Oxide Combination with Carbon Nanotubes for Improving Charge Storage and Long-Life Zinc Ion Batteries

Author

Poochai, Chatwarin, primary, Kongthong, Tanaporn, additional, Lohitkarn, Jaruwit, additional, Maeboonruan, Nattida, additional, Pothaya, Sukanya, additional, Chuminjak, Yaowamarn, additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Kheawhom, Soorathep, additional, Tuantranont, Adisorn, additional, Limthongkul, Pimpa, additional, and Sriprachuabwong, Chakrit, additional

Published
2024
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8. Consensus statement for stability assessment and reporting for perovskite photovoltaics based on ISOS procedures

Author

Khenkin, Mark V., Katz, Eugene A., Abate, Antonio, Bardizza, Giorgio, Berry, Joseph J., Brabec, Christoph, Brunetti, Francesca, Bulović, Vladimir, Burlingame, Quinn, Di Carlo, Aldo, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Cheng, Yi-Bing, Colsmann, Alexander, Cros, Stephane, Domanski, Konrad, Dusza, Michał, Fell, Christopher J., Forrest, Stephen R., Galagan, Yulia, Di Girolamo, Diego, Grätzel, Michael, Hagfeldt, Anders, von Hauff, Elizabeth, Hoppe, Harald, Kettle, Jeff, Köbler, Hans, Leite, Marina S., Liu, Shengzhong (Frank), Loo, Yueh-Lin, Luther, Joseph M., Ma, Chang-Qi, Madsen, Morten, Manceau, Matthieu, Matheron, Muriel, McGehee, Michael, Meitzner, Rico, Nazeeruddin, Mohammad Khaja, Nogueira, Ana Flavia, Odabaşı, Çağla, Osherov, Anna, Park, Nam-Gyu, Reese, Matthew O., De Rossi, Francesca, Saliba, Michael, Schubert, Ulrich S., Snaith, Henry J., Stranks, Samuel D., Tress, Wolfgang, Troshin, Pavel A., Turkovic, Vida, Veenstra, Sjoerd, Visoly-Fisher, Iris, Walsh, Aron, Watson, Trystan, Xie, Haibing, Yıldırım, Ramazan, Zakeeruddin, Shaik Mohammed, Zhu, Kai, and Lira-Cantu, Monica

Published
2020
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10. Post‐Treatment of Metal Halide Perovskites: From Morphology Control, Defect Passivation to Band Alignment and Construction of Heterostructures

Author

Hu, Min, primary, Zhu, Yanqing, additional, Zhou, Zhongmin, additional, Hao, Mingwei, additional, Harnmanasvate, Chinnatip, additional, Waiyawat, Jutharat, additional, Wang, Yulong, additional, Lu, Jianfeng, additional, An, Qinyou, additional, Li, Xiong, additional, Zhang, Tian, additional, Zhou, Yuanyuan, additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, and Rong, Yaoguang, additional

Published
2023
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12. Post-Treatment of Metal Halide Perovskites: From Morphology Control, Defect Passivation to Band Alignment and Construction of Heterostructures

Author

Hu, Min, Zhu, Yanqing, Zhou, Zhongmin, Hao, Mingwei, Harnmanasvate, Chinnatip, Waiyawat, Jutharat, Wang, Yulong, Lu, Jianfeng, An, Qinyou, Li, Xiong, Zhang, Tian, Zhou, Yuanyuan, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Rong, Yaoguang, Hu, Min, Zhu, Yanqing, Zhou, Zhongmin, Hao, Mingwei, Harnmanasvate, Chinnatip, Waiyawat, Jutharat, Wang, Yulong, Lu, Jianfeng, An, Qinyou, Li, Xiong, Zhang, Tian, Zhou, Yuanyuan, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, and Rong, Yaoguang

Abstract

Metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have witnessed a swift increase in power conversion efficiency in the past decade, emerging as one of the most promising next-generation photovoltaic technologies for commercialization and low-carbon energy generation. Through significant efforts in optimizing the processing techniques, high-quality perovskite thin films can now be prepared with polycrystalline morphologies consisting of monolayer grains. Nevertheless, defects and microstructural disorders still form at the surface/heterointerface and in the bulk of the films. Post-treatment of the as-crystallized films has been intensively investigated for passivating these defects, being proved effective for improving the device performance. In this review, the versatile strategies for post-treating the surface of perovskite thin films toward morphology control, defect passivation, and band alignment are discussed. The tailored surface properties are correlated to charge dynamics at interfaces and photovoltaic performance of PSCs. Since the perovskite heterostructures prepared by simple post-treatments may suffer from degradation at high temperatures, the recent advances in preparing phase-pure and stable perovskite heterostructures are also discussed. Finally, a perspective elaborating future opportunities for further enhancing the efficiency and stability of PSCs is provided. © 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Published
2023

17. Consensus statement for stability assessment and reporting for perovskite photovoltaics based on ISOS procedures

Author

United States-Israel Binational Science Foundation, European Commission, National Science Foundation (US), Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UK), Welsh Government, Russian Science Foundation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China, National Research Foundation of Korea, Ministry of Science and Technology (South Korea), Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (España), Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (España), Agencia Estatal de Investigación (España), Generalitat de Catalunya, Khenkin, Mark V., Katz, Eugene A., Abate, Antonio, Bardizza, Giorgio, Berry, Joseph J., Brabec, Christoph, Brunetti, Francesca, Bulović, Vladimir, Burlingame, Quinn, Di Carlo, Aldo, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Cheng, Yi-Bing, Colsmann, Alexander, Cros, Stephane, Domanski, Konrad, Dusza, Michal, Fell, Christopher J., Forrest, Stephen R., Galagan, Yulia, di Girolamo, Diego, Grätzel, Michael, Hagfeldt, Anders, Hauff, Elizabeth von, Hoppe, Harald, Kettle, Jeff, Köbler, Hans, Leite, Marina S., Liu, Shengzhong, Loo, Yueh-Lin, Luther, Joseph M., Ma, Chang-Qi, Madsen, Morten, Manceau, Matthieu, Matheron, Muriel, McGehee, Michael, Meitzner, Rico, Nazeeruddin, Mohammad Khaja, Nogueira, Ana Flavia, Odabaşi, Çağla, Osherov, Anna, Park, Nam-Gyu, Reese, Matthew O., Rossi, Francesca de, Saliba, Michael, Schubert, Ulrich S., Snaith, Henry J., Stranks, Samuel D., Tress, Wolfgang, Troshin, Pavel, Turkovic, Vida, Veenstra, Sjoerd, Visoly-Fisher, Iris, Walsh, Aron, Watson, Trystan, Xie, Haibing, Yıldırım, Yamazan, Zakeeruddin, Shaik Mohammed, Zhu, Kai, Lira-Cantú, Mónica, United States-Israel Binational Science Foundation, European Commission, National Science Foundation (US), Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UK), Welsh Government, Russian Science Foundation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China, National Research Foundation of Korea, Ministry of Science and Technology (South Korea), Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (España), Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (España), Agencia Estatal de Investigación (España), Generalitat de Catalunya, Khenkin, Mark V., Katz, Eugene A., Abate, Antonio, Bardizza, Giorgio, Berry, Joseph J., Brabec, Christoph, Brunetti, Francesca, Bulović, Vladimir, Burlingame, Quinn, Di Carlo, Aldo, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Cheng, Yi-Bing, Colsmann, Alexander, Cros, Stephane, Domanski, Konrad, Dusza, Michal, Fell, Christopher J., Forrest, Stephen R., Galagan, Yulia, di Girolamo, Diego, Grätzel, Michael, Hagfeldt, Anders, Hauff, Elizabeth von, Hoppe, Harald, Kettle, Jeff, Köbler, Hans, Leite, Marina S., Liu, Shengzhong, Loo, Yueh-Lin, Luther, Joseph M., Ma, Chang-Qi, Madsen, Morten, Manceau, Matthieu, Matheron, Muriel, McGehee, Michael, Meitzner, Rico, Nazeeruddin, Mohammad Khaja, Nogueira, Ana Flavia, Odabaşi, Çağla, Osherov, Anna, Park, Nam-Gyu, Reese, Matthew O., Rossi, Francesca de, Saliba, Michael, Schubert, Ulrich S., Snaith, Henry J., Stranks, Samuel D., Tress, Wolfgang, Troshin, Pavel, Turkovic, Vida, Veenstra, Sjoerd, Visoly-Fisher, Iris, Walsh, Aron, Watson, Trystan, Xie, Haibing, Yıldırım, Yamazan, Zakeeruddin, Shaik Mohammed, Zhu, Kai, and Lira-Cantú, Mónica

Abstract

Improving the long-term stability of perovskite solar cells is critical to the deployment of this technology. Despite the great emphasis laid on stability-related investigations, publications lack consistency in experimental procedures and parameters reported. It is therefore challenging to reproduce and compare results and thereby develop a deep understanding of degradation mechanisms. Here, we report a consensus between researchers in the field on procedures for testing perovskite solar cell stability, which are based on the International Summit on Organic Photovoltaic Stability (ISOS) protocols. We propose additional procedures to account for properties specific to PSCs such as ion redistribution under electric fields, reversible degradation and to distinguish ambient-induced degradation from other stress factors. These protocols are not intended as a replacement of the existing qualification standards, but rather they aim to unify the stability assessment and to understand failure modes. Finally, we identify key procedural information which we suggest reporting in publications to improve reproducibility and enable large data set analysis.

Published
2020

18. Tailoring the Dimensionality of Hybrid Perovskites in Mesoporous Carbon Electrodes for Type‐II Band Alignment and Enhanced Performance of Printable Hole‐Conductor‐Free Perovskite Solar Cells

Author

Chen, Xiayan, primary, Xia, Yongkang, additional, Huang, Qingyi, additional, Li, Zhe, additional, Mei, Anyi, additional, Hu, Yue, additional, Wang, Ti, additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Rong, Yaoguang, additional, and Han, Hongwei, additional

Published
2021
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20. A Ladder‐like Dopant‐free Hole‐Transporting Polymer for Hysteresis‐less High‐Efficiency Perovskite Solar Cells with High Ambient Stability

Author

Chawanpunyawat, Thanyarat, primary, Funchien, Patteera, additional, Wongkaew, Praweena, additional, Henjongchom, Nakorn, additional, Ariyarit, Atthaporn, additional, Ittisanronnachai, Somlak, additional, Namuangruk, Supawadee, additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Sudyoadsuk, Taweesak, additional, Goubard, Fabrice, additional, and Promarak, Vinich, additional

Published
2020
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24. Beyond the Phase Segregation: Probing the Irreversible Phase Reconstruction of Mixed‐Halide Perovskites.

Author

Li, Zhe, Zheng, Xin, Xiao, Xuan, An, Yongkang, Wang, Yanbo, Huang, Qingyi, Li, Xiong, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, An, Qinyou, Rong, Yaoguang, Wang, Ti, and Xu, Hongxing

Subjects
PEROVSKITE, CHARGE injection, PHASE transitions, PHOTOLUMINESCENCE, OPEN-ended questions
Abstract

Mixed‐halide perovskites can undergo a photoinduced phase segregation. Even though many reports have claimed that such a phase segregation process is reversible, what happens after phase segregation and its impact on the performance of perovskite‐based devices are still open questions. Here, the phase transformation of MAPb(I1−xBrx)3 after phase segregation and probe an irreversible phase reconstruction of MAPbBr3 is investigated. The photoluminescence imaging microscopy technique is introduced to in situ record the whole process. It is proposed that the type‐I band alignment of segregated I‐rich and Br‐rich domains can enhance the emission of the I‐rich domains by suppressing the nonradiative recombination channels. At the same time, the charge injection from Br‐rich to I‐rich domains drives the expulsion of iodide from the lattice, and thus triggers the reconstruction of MAPbBr3. The work highlights the significance of ion movements in mixed‐halide perovskites and provides new perspectives to understand the property evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2022
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28. In Situ Formation of δ-FAPbI3at the Perovskite/Carbon Interface for Enhanced Photovoltage of Printable Mesoscopic Perovskite Solar Cells

Author

Chen, Xiayan, Xia, Yongkang, Zheng, Ziwei, Xiao, Xuan, Ling, Chenxi, Xia, Minghao, Hu, Yue, Mei, Anyi, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Rong, Yaoguang, and Han, Hongwei

Abstract

Formamidinium lead triiodide (FAPbI3) perovskite has attracted intensive research attention due to its ideal band gap and low defect density for photovoltaic applications. Particularly, the existence of non-photoactive δ-phase FAPbI3has been considered detrimental to regular-structured perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Here, in hole-conductor-free triple-mesoscopic PSCs, we observe that α-phase FAPbI3transforms to δ-phase FAPbI3at the perovskite/carbon interface and in situ forms an α/δ-phase junction when the as-fabricated cells are exposed to humid atmosphere. The α/δ-phase junction shows a favorable band alignment and significantly suppresses the charge recombination at the interface. By controlling the relative humidity of the atmosphere, we fabricate FAPbI3-based cells that deliver a champion efficiency of 17.11% with an enhanced open-circuit voltage (VOC) of 1020 mV. This work demonstrates the potential of δ-phase FAPbI3for benefiting the device performance of PSCs and proposes the concept of constructing perovskite-based junctions at the interface between a perovskite-absorbing layer and charge-transporting layers for enhancing the VOCof PSCs.

Published
2022
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29. 23.6%-efficient monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with improved stability

Author

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mailoa, Jonathan P, Hoye, Robert L. Z., Peters, Ian Marius, Sofia, Sarah Elizabeth, Buonassisi, Anthony, Bush, Kevin A., Palmstrom, Axel F., Yu, Zhengshan J., Boccard, Mathieu, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, McMeekin, David P., Bailie, Colin D., Leijtens, Tomas, Minichetti, Maxmillian C., Rolston, Nicholas, Prasanna, Rohit, Harwood, Duncan, Ma, Wen, Moghadam, Farhad, Snaith, Henry J., Holman, Zachary C., Bent, Stacey F., McGehee, Michael D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mailoa, Jonathan P, Hoye, Robert L. Z., Peters, Ian Marius, Sofia, Sarah Elizabeth, Buonassisi, Anthony, Bush, Kevin A., Palmstrom, Axel F., Yu, Zhengshan J., Boccard, Mathieu, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, McMeekin, David P., Bailie, Colin D., Leijtens, Tomas, Minichetti, Maxmillian C., Rolston, Nicholas, Prasanna, Rohit, Harwood, Duncan, Ma, Wen, Moghadam, Farhad, Snaith, Henry J., Holman, Zachary C., Bent, Stacey F., and McGehee, Michael D.

Abstract

As the record single-junction efficiencies of perovskite solar cells now rival those of copper indium gallium selenide, cadmium telluride and multicrystalline silicon, they are becoming increasingly attractive for use in tandem solar cells due to their wide, tunable bandgap and solution processability. Previously, perovskite/silicon tandems were limited by significant parasitic absorption and poor environmental stability. Here, we improve the efficiency of monolithic, two-terminal, 1-cm2perovskite/silicon tandems to 23.6% by combining an infrared-tuned silicon heterojunction bottom cell with the recently developed caesium formamidinium lead halide perovskite. This more-stable perovskite tolerates deposition of a tin oxide buffer layer via atomic layer deposition that prevents shunts, has negligible parasitic absorption, and allows for the sputter deposition of a transparent top electrode. Furthermore, the window layer doubles as a diffusion barrier, increasing the thermal and environmental stability to enable perovskite devices that withstand a 1,000-hour damp heat test at 85 °C and 85% relative humidity.

Published
2018

32. In Situ Measurement of Electric-Field Screening in Hysteresis-Free PTAA/FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I0.83Br0.17)3/C60 Perovskite Solar Cells Gives an Ion Mobility of ∼3 × 10–7 cm2/(V s), 2 Orders of Magnitude Faster than Reported for Metal-Oxide-Contacted Perovskite Cells with Hysteresis

Author

Bertoluzzi, Luca, primary, Belisle, Rebecca A., additional, Bush, Kevin A., additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, McGehee, Michael D., additional, and O’Regan, Brian C., additional

Published
2018
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34. Interfacial Effects of Tin Oxide Atomic Layer Deposition in Metal Halide Perovskite Photovoltaics

Author

Palmstrom, Axel F., primary, Raiford, James A., additional, Prasanna, Rohit, additional, Bush, Kevin A., additional, Sponseller, Melany, additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Minichetti, Maxmillian C., additional, Bergsman, David S., additional, Leijtens, Tomas, additional, Wang, Hsin‐Ping, additional, Bulović, Vladimir, additional, McGehee, Michael D., additional, and Bent, Stacey F., additional

Published
2018
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36. Controlling Thin-Film Stress and Wrinkling during Perovskite Film Formation

Author

Bush, Kevin A., primary, Rolston, Nicholas, additional, Gold-Parker, Aryeh, additional, Manzoor, Salman, additional, Hausele, Jakob, additional, Yu, Zhengshan J., additional, Raiford, James A., additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Holman, Zachary C., additional, Toney, Michael F., additional, Dauskardt, Reinhold H., additional, and McGehee, Michael D., additional

Published
2018
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39. Morphological and electrical control of fullerene dimerization determines organic photovoltaic stability

Author

Heumueller, Thomas, Mateker, William R., Distler, Andreas, Fritze, Urs F., Cheacharoen, Rongrong, Nguyen, William H., Biele, Markus, Salvador, Michael, von Delius, Max, Egelhaaf, Hans-Joachim, McGehee, Michael D., and Brabec, Christoph J.

Subjects
Technische Fakultät, Physics::Atomic and Molecular Clusters, ddc:600
Abstract

Fullerene dimerization has been linked to short circuit current (Jsc) losses in organic solar cells comprised of certain polymer–fullerene systems. We investigate several polymer–fullerene systems, which present Jsc loss to varying degrees, in order to determine under which conditions dimerization occurs. By reintroducing dimers into fresh devices, we confirm that the photo-induced dimers are indeed the origin of the Jsc loss. We find that both film morphology and electrical bias affect the photodimerization process and thus the associated loss of Jsc. In plain fullerene films, a higher degree of crystallinity can inhibit the dimerization reaction, as observed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) measurements. In blend films, the amount of dimerization depends on the degree of mixing between polymer and fullerene. For highly mixed systems with very amorphous polymers, no dimerization is observed. In solar cells with pure polymer and fullerene domains, we tune the fullerene morphology from amorphous to crystalline by thermal annealing. Similar to neat fullerene films, we observe improved light stability for devices with crystalline fullerene domains. Changing the operating conditions of the investigated solar cells from Voc to Jsc also significantly reduces the amount of dimerization-related Jsc loss; HPLC analysis of the active layer shows that more dimers are formed if the cell is held at Voc instead of Jsc. The effect of bias on dimerization, as well as a clear correlation between PL quenching and reduced dimerization upon addition of small amounts of an amorphous polymer into PC60BM films, suggests a reaction mechanism via excitons.

Published
2016

41. 23.6%-efficient monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with improved stability

Author

Bush, Kevin A., primary, Palmstrom, Axel F., additional, Yu, Zhengshan J., additional, Boccard, Mathieu, additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Mailoa, Jonathan P., additional, McMeekin, David P., additional, Hoye, Robert L. Z., additional, Bailie, Colin D., additional, Leijtens, Tomas, additional, Peters, Ian Marius, additional, Minichetti, Maxmillian C., additional, Rolston, Nicholas, additional, Prasanna, Rohit, additional, Sofia, Sarah, additional, Harwood, Duncan, additional, Ma, Wen, additional, Moghadam, Farhad, additional, Snaith, Henry J., additional, Buonassisi, Tonio, additional, Holman, Zachary C., additional, Bent, Stacey F., additional, and McGehee, Michael D., additional

Published
2017
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44. Morphological and electrical control of fullerene dimerization determines organic photovoltaic stability

Author

Heumueller, Thomas, primary, Mateker, William R., additional, Distler, Andreas, additional, Fritze, Urs F., additional, Cheacharoen, Rongrong, additional, Nguyen, William H., additional, Biele, Markus, additional, Salvador, Michael, additional, von Delius, Max, additional, Egelhaaf, Hans-Joachim, additional, McGehee, Michael D., additional, and Brabec, Christoph J., additional

Published
2016
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50. In Situ Measurement of Electric-Field Screening in Hysteresis-Free PTAA/FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I0.83Br0.17)3/C60 Perovskite Solar Cells Gives an Ion Mobility of ∼3 × 10–7cm2/(V s), 2 Orders of Magnitude Faster than Reported for Metal-Oxide-Contacted Perovskite Cells with Hysteresis

Author

Bertoluzzi, Luca, Belisle, Rebecca A., Bush, Kevin A., Cheacharoen, Rongrong, McGehee, Michael D., and O’Regan, Brian C.

Abstract

We apply a series of transient measurements to operational perovskite solar cells of the architecture ITO/PTAA/FA0.83Cs0.17Pb(I0.83Br0.17)3/C60/BCP/Ag, and similar cells with FA0.83MA0.17. The cells show no detectable JV hysteresis. Using photocurrent transients at applied bias we find a ∼1 ms time scale for the electric field screening by mobile ions in these cells. We confirm our interpretation of the transient measurements using a drift-diffusion model. Using Coulometry during field screening relaxation at short circuit, we determine the mobile ion concentration to be ∼1 × 1018/cm3. Using a model with one mobile ion species, the concentration and the screening time require an ion mobility of ∼3 × 10–7cm2/(V s). As far as we know, this article gives the first direct measurement of the ion mobility and concentration in a fully functional perovskite solar cell. The measured ion mobility is 2 orders of magnitude higher than the highest estimates previously determined using perovskite solar cells and perovskite thin films, and 3 orders of magnitude higher than is frequently used in modeling hysteresis effects. We provide evidence that the fast field screening is due to mobile ions, as opposed to dark injection and trapping of electronic carriers.

Published
2018
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