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Bacteria of the genusEnterococcuscolonize the guts of diverse animals. Some species have acquired multiple antibiotic resistances on top of a high level of intrinsic resistance and have emerged as leading causes of hospital-associated infection. Although clinical isolates of enterococcal speciesE. faecalisandE. faeciumhave been studied with respect to their antibiotic resistances and infection pathogenesis, comparatively little is known about the biology of enterococci in their natural context of the guts of humans and other land animals, including arthropods and other invertebrates. Importantly, little is also known about the global pool of genes already optimized for expression in an enterococcal background with the potential to be readily acquired by hospital adapted strains ofE. faecalisandE. faecium, known facile exchangers of mobile genetic elements. We therefore undertook a global study designed to reach into maximally diverse habitats, to establish a first approximation of the genetic diversity of enterococci on Earth. Presumptive enterococci from over 900 diverse specimens were initially screened by PCR using a specific reporter gene that we found to accurately reflect genomic diversity. The genomes of isolates exceeding an operationally set threshold for diversity were then sequenced in their entirety and analyzed. This provided us with data on the global occurrence of many known enterococcal species and their association with various hosts and ecologies and identified 18 novel species expanding the diversity of the genusEnterococcusby over 25%. The 18 novel enterococcal species harbor a diverse array of genes associated with toxins, detoxification, and resource acquisition that highlight the capacity of the enterococci to acquire and adapt novel functions from diverse gut environments. In addition to the discovery and characterization of new species, this expanded diversity permitted a higher resolution analysis of the phylogenetic structure of theEnterococcusgenus, including identification of distinguishing features of its 4 deeply rooted clades and genes associated with range expansion such as B-vitamin biosynthesis and flagellar motility. Collectively, this work provides an unprecedentedly broad and deep view of the genusEnterococcus, along with new insights into their potential threat to human health.

Phaeohyphomycosis caused by

An 11-day-old little blue penguin ( Eudyptula minor) died unexpectedly. Prior to hatching, the egg experienced trauma and resultant defects were repaired. The chick hatched without complication and was clinically normal prior to death. Necropsy revealed congested lungs. Histologic examination showed moderate nonsuppurative encephalitis with focally extensive neuronal necrosis and intranuclear inclusions in neurons within necrotic foci. Herpesvirus DNA was detected in brain tissue with a generic herpesvirus polymerase chain reaction. Sanger sequencing demonstrated 100% and 98% sequence homology to sphenicid alphaherpesvirus 1 and penguin herpesvirus 2, respectively. In situ hybridization demonstrated large amounts of herpesvirus nucleic acid in intranuclear inclusions and neuronal nuclei. Combined histology, polymerase chain reaction, Sanger sequencing, and in situ hybridization results were most consistent with herpesviral encephalitis, most likely caused by sphenicid alphaherpesvirus 1. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a herpesvirus infection causing encephalitis in a penguin and the first report of herpesvirus in this species.

OBJECTIVE To characterize osteolytic lesions in cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) hospitalized for rehabilitation and describe methods used for the management of such lesions. ANIMALS 25 stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles hospitalized between 2008 and 2018. PROCEDURES Medical records of sea turtles with a diagnosis of osteolytic lesions were reviewed retrospectively to obtain the date of diagnosis, clinical signs, radiographic findings, microbial culture results, hematologic and plasma biochemical data, cytologic and histologic findings, antimicrobial history, time to first negative culture result, treatment duration, and outcome. RESULTS Lesions were identified radiographically a median of 50 days after admission and were located within epiphyses or metaphyses of various appendicular joints. Lesions were associated with periarticular swelling (n = 24), lameness (16), lethargy (2), and hyporexia (2). Bacterial culture yielded growth of single organisms (n = 16), multiple organisms (2), or no growth (6). Significant differences in hematologic and biochemical data were detected between the times of diagnosis and convalescence. Cytologic and histologic findings characterized the lesions as osteomyelitis leading to septic arthritis. Sixteen sea turtles were managed medically, and 8 were managed medically and surgically. Surgery resulted in rapid improvement in joint mobility and overall clinical status. Most (22/25 [88%]) sea turtles survived and were released after long-term management. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE During rehabilitation, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles may be affected by osteomyelitis. Medical management based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing was effective for most turtles. Long term management efforts in turtles are justified by high survival rate.

Fibropapillomatosis (FP), a debilitating, infectious neoplastic disease, is rarely reported in endangered Kemp’s ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii). With this study, we describe FP and the associated chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5) in Kemp’s ridley turtles encountered in the United States during 2006–2020. Analysis of 22 case reports of Kemp’s ridley turtles with FP revealed that while the disease was mild in most cases, 54.5% were adult turtles, a reproductively valuable age class whose survival is a priority for population recovery. Of 51 blood samples from tumor-free turtles and 12 tumor samples from turtles with FP, 7.8% and 91.7%, respectively, tested positive for ChHV5 DNA via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Viral genome shotgun sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of six tumor samples show that ChHV5 sequences in Kemp’s ridley turtles encountered in the Gulf of Mexico and northwestern Atlantic cluster with ChHV5 sequences identified in green (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles from Hawaii, the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, and the Caribbean. Results suggest an interspecific, spatiotemporal spread of FP among Kemp’s ridley turtles in regions where the disease is enzootic. Although FP is currently uncommon in this species, it remains a health concern due to its uncertain pathogenesis and potential relationship with habitat degradation.

Simple Summary A tracheal lavage is commonly used to characterize the microbes that may be causing pneumonia in sea turtles, typically by culture-dependent methods. In this study, we characterized the tracheal lavage microbiome through culture-independent methods and compared the resulting sequence data to conventional cultures, the degree of radiographic lung abnormalities, and pathogens of sea turtles as previously reported in the literature. This study also evaluates the microbial communities at different sections of the respiratory tract from deceased sea turtles. We found that radiographic lung abnormalities do not correlate with the tracheal lavage microbiome, tracheal lavage cultures under-represent the microbial community as determined by culture-independent methods, many previously reported sea turtle pathogens are present in low abundance of the tracheal lavage microbiome, and tracheal lavages are not representative of other sections of the respiratory tract. Abstract Respiratory disease is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in sea turtles, including the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii). Although culture-dependent methods are typically used to characterize microbes associated with pneumonia and to determine treatment, culture-independent methods can provide a deeper understanding of the respiratory microbial communities and lead to a more accurate diagnosis. In this study, we characterized the tracheal lavage microbiome from cold-stunned Kemp’s ridley sea turtles at three time points during rehabilitation (intake, rehabilitation, and convalescence) by analyzing the 16S rRNA gene collected from tracheal lavage samples. We retrospectively developed a radiographic scoring system to grade the severity of lung abnormalities in these turtles and found no differences in diversity or composition of microbial communities based on radiographic score. We also found that the culture isolates from tracheal lavage samples, as well as other previously reported sea turtle pathogens, were present in variable abundance across sequenced samples. In addition to the tracheal microbial community of live turtles, we characterized microbial communities from other segments of the respiratory tract (glottis, trachea, anterior lung, posterior lung) from deceased turtles. We found a high degree of variability within turtles and a high degree of dissimilarity between different segments of the respiratory tract and the tracheal lavage collected from the same turtle. In summary, we found that the pulmonary microbial community associated with pneumonia in sea turtles is complex and does not correlate well with the microbial community as identified by tracheal lavage. These results underscore the limitations of using tracheal lavage for identification of the causative agents of pneumonia in sea turtles.

Simple Summary Kemp’s ridley turtle is the rarest species of sea turtle and is considered to be critically endangered. While the main habitat of adults is the Gulf of Mexico, juveniles forage off the northeastern United States during summer. However, when juveniles fail to leave this area in autumn before water temperatures fall below 10 °C, they become cold-stunned and strand on beaches. Every winter, there are coordinated efforts to rescue and rehabilitate these stranded sea turtles. Cold-stunned sea turtles require supportive care because they suffer from a variety of medical problems, including steatitis, or inflammation of fat tissue. The goal of this study was to further understand steatitis by investigating blood analytes involved with vitamin E metabolism, and investigating microscopic changes that occur in affected fat tissue. We found that various contributing factors may play a role in the development of steatitis. Based on these findings, we conclude that enhanced vitamin E supplementation and dietary modification during rehabilitation may be useful in preventing and treating steatitis. The results from this study will contribute to improving rehabilitation outcomes and successful release of this endangered sea turtle species. Abstract The pathogenesis of steatitis that infrequently occurs in cold-stunned Kemp’s ridley sea turtles (KRT; Lepidochelys kempii) has been undetermined. The objectives of this study were to investigate the clinical (n = 23) and histologic findings (n = 11) in cold-stunned KRT, and to compare plasma concentrations of α-tocopherol (vitamin E), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and the TBARS to vitamin E (T/E) ratio (an assessment of oxidative stress) between cold-stunned KRT with clinically and/or histologically confirmed steatitis (n = 10) and free-ranging KRT (n = 9). None of the cold-stunned turtles had clinically detectable steatitis at admission, and the median number of days to diagnosis of steatitis was 71 (range 33–469). Histologic findings of affected adipose tissue included heterophilic (n = 9) and/or histiocytic (n = 5) steatitis, fat necrosis (n = 7), myonecrosis (n = 2), and intralesional bacteria (n = 6). Cold-stunned KRT had significantly lower plasma vitamin E concentrations (median = 3.5 nmol/g), lower plasma TBARS concentrations (median = 1.6 nmol/g), and higher T/E ratios (median = 0.37), than controls (208.8 nmol/g; 2.1 nmol/g; 0.01, respectively). These results suggest a multifactorial etiology for the development of steatitis in KRT during rehabilitation, including tissue injury, septicemia, and various factors resulting in imbalances of anti-/oxidative status. By highlighting the need to provide more effective vitamin E supplementation, and the need to re-assess specific components of the diet, this study may lead to reduced incidence and improved medical management of steatitis in cold-stunned sea turtles.

Sea turtle populations are threatened globally due to anthropogenic and natural factors, including fisheries interactions, watercraft strike, hunting, habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and severe weather. Injured and ill sea turtles are often evaluated by wildlife rehabilitation centres, and many sea turtles can be returned to the wild after rehabilitation. Physiological evaluation of injured and ill sea turtles has revealed life-threatening physiological dysfunction such as acidosis, hypoxia, hypercarbia, dehydration, and hyperkalaemia. Recognition and management of such conditions has improved the outcome for these patients. In addition to clinical advancement, veterinary evaluation has improved our understanding of general sea turtle biology, and increased the safety of procedures such as anaesthesia and laparoscopy. These modalities, combined with emerging biotelemetry technologies, will continue to improve our understanding of sea turtle ecology and conservation physiology.

Oxytetracycline (42 mg/kg SC q6d) was injected into the dorsal shoulder region of 29 sea turtles during clinical management after stranding, including 10 Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), 10 loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and nine green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas). Before injection, the drug was diluted into a suitable fluid for injection (5–20 ml/kg) as chosen by the attending veterinarian. Turtles were treated for as long as clinically indicated prior to discontinuing the drug (range 2–10 doses, median four). After the final injection, blood was collected at 1, 2, 4, 8, 72, 144, and 288 h and plasma harvested for measurement of the oxytetracycline plasma concentration. To limit the volume of blood collected, a sparse sampling strategy was used with samples collected at only three or four time points per turtle. The plasma oxytetracycline concentration was measured with high pressure liquid chromatography. Population pharmacokinetics using nonlinear mixed effects modeling produced the following results: half-life, 36 h; volume of distribution, 0.78 L/kg; and area-under-the-curve, 2,799 µg*h/ml. Using this dose and method of administration, the plasma oxytetracycline concentrations were maintained above a minimum inhibitory concentration value of approximately 4 µg/ml for approximately 6 days.

Blood was collected from wild captured green and Kemp's ridley turtles off the west coast of Florida, USA. Blood gases and biochemical values were analyzed using a point of care (POC) device in the field. Analytes include pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), total carbon dioxide (TCO2), bicarbonate (HCO3), base excess (BE), oxygen saturation (sO2), lactate, sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), total carbon dioxide (TCO2), anion gap, ionized calcium, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (Crea), hematocrit (Hct), and hemoglobin (Hb). These are novel data for wild healthy Kemp's ridley turtles, and results for green turtles were generally consistent with past studies of green turtles with exceptions primarily in blood gas values. Ninety percent of the green turtles had fibropapillomatosis (FP), but none of the blood analytes were correlated with disease severity. Only BUN was correlated with weight of green turtles, and there was no correlation between blood parameters and weight of Kemp's ridley turtles. This study provides data that are useful in understanding the physiologic status of sea turtles specific to this region, allowing for comparisons to other populations, life stages, and disease states.

An 11-day-old little blue penguin (

SynopsisMany juvenile Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles strand during fall on the beaches of Cape Cod (MA, USA), with total stranding numbers sometimes exceeding 300 turtles per year. Once rehabilitated, turtles must be released at beaches with appropriate water temperatures, often requiring transportation to southeastern coastal states of the USA. These transportation events (transports) may approach or exceed 24 h in duration. Kemp’s ridley turtles are known to exhibit an adrenal stress response during such transports, but the effect of transport duration has been unclear, and no other sea turtle species has been investigated. To assess whether transport duration and/or species affects physiological reactions to transport, we studied pre- and post-transport physiological measures in Kemp’s ridley and loggerhead turtles transported by ground for

During the BP Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill in 2010, 319 live oiled sea turtles were rescued and admitted to rehabilitation centers for decontamination and veterinary care. Most turtles were small, surfaceñpelagic juveniles that were collected from oiled habitat distant from shore. Serial hematology, plasma biochemistry, and blood gas analyses were reviewed to characterize abnormalities relative to observed degree of oiling. Clinicopathological abnormalities upon admission indicated acute, nonspecific metabolic and osmoregulatory derangements that were attributable to a combination of events including stress, exertion, physical exhaustion, and dehydration related to oiling, capture, and transport. Specific toxicological effects reported in other taxa were not observed. Initial point-of-care blood data from one rescue center were evaluated using clinical assessment of physiological status for all turtles of all species with available data for pH, pCO2, sodium, and potassium. In addition, a prognostic model that was specifically developed for cold-stunned Kempís ridley sea turtles Lepidochelys kempii was applied to oiled Kempís ridley turtles from one center. Thirty-six percent of oiled turtles were identified as physiologically deranged based on a clinical assessment of their physiological status, and 25% of oiled Kempís ridley sea turtles exceeded the mortality risk threshold of the prognostic model. These results indicate that the physiological derangements in these animals were relatively severe and clinically relevant. Based on observations during the DWH spill, adverse physiological effects in sea turtles may be an important consequence of stress, exertion, physical exhaustion, and dehydration secondary to oiling, capture, and transport.

Sea turtle rehabilitation clinics and aquaria frequently transport stranded sea turtles long distances out of water, e.g. for release at sites with appropriate water temperatures. Endangered Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) are known to exhibit an adrenal stress response during such transports. In an opportunistic study of turtles transported by road from Massachusetts to Georgia for release, we tested whether placing turtles in saltwater pools for short periods after transport would help turtles recover from transport-related stress. Eighteen juvenile Kemp's ridley turtles were examined and blood samples collected (1) immediately pre-transport, (2) immediately post-transport and (3) after a 6 h (n = 9) or 24 h (n = 9) post-transport period in unfamiliar pools, after which all turtles were released to the sea. Blood samples were analyzed for corticosterone, glucose, total white blood cell (WBC) count, heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio, pH, pO2, pCO2, HCO3 (bicarbonate), sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, lactate and hematocrit. Though the majority of turtles remained in good clinical condition, corticosterone, glucose, WBC and H/L elevated significantly during transport, while potassium declined slightly but significantly. After at least 6 h in a saltwater pool, potassium and glucose returned to pre-transport baselines and corticosterone partially recovered toward baseline. Extending the pool time to 24 h did not markedly enhance the physiological recovery of turtles, and two immune measures (WBC, H/L) remained elevated from the effect of transport. Six hours in a saltwater pool appears to facilitate the recovery of Kemp's ridley sea turtles from transport-related stress and may therefore improve their readiness for release.

Microbial communities of animals play a role in health and disease, including immunocompromised conditions. In the northeastern United States, cold-stunning events often cause endangered Kemp’s ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) to become stranded on beaches in autumn. These sea turtles are admitted to rehabilitation facilities when rescued alive and are presumed immunocompromised secondary to hypothermia. To better understand the role that microbes play in the health of cold-stunned sea turtles, we characterized the oral and cloacal microbiome from Kemp’s ridley turtles at multiple timepoints during rehabilitation, from admission to pre-release, by using Illumina sequencing to analyze the 16S rRNA gene. Microbial communities were distinct between body sites and among turtles that survived and those that died. We found that clinical parameters such as presence of pneumonia or values for various blood analytes did not correlate with oral or cloacal microbial community composition. We also investigated the effect of antibiotics on the microbiome during rehabilitation and prior to release and found that the type of antibiotic altered the microbial community composition, yet overall taxonomic diversity remained the same. The microbiome of cold-stunned Kemp’s ridley turtles gradually changed through the course of rehabilitation with environment, antibiotics, and disease status all playing a role in those changes and ultimately the release status of the turtles.

Histologic lesions incidental to the cause of death were observed in the adrenal glands of 17 subadult and adult leatherback sea turtles ( Dermochelys coriacea ) found dead or moribund on or near shore in North America. Round bodies, 250-300 μm in diameter composed of an outer capsule and large multinucleated cells surrounding a central mass of acellular material were distributed throughout the affected glands. Protozoal etiology was suspected based on some resemblance to coccidia; however, features diagnostic for coccidial infection were lacking in all but one case, which had a focal area of adrenalitis containing zoites. A novel eucoccidian partial 18S rRNA genetic sequence was consistently detected in adrenal glands with lesions. With the use of quantitative PCR, a specific area of the V4 region of the coccidian 18S gene was quantified in affected adrenal glands and correlated significantly with density of the histologic lesions. A second distinct, but closely related, 18S sequence was also amplified from the adrenal gland of one turtle and from a fecal sample containing unsporulated coccidian oocysts. The two 18S sequences identified from leatherback sea turtles form a clade within the family Eimeriidae. Further investigation is required to understand better the morphology of the life stages, life cycle, and potential effects of this coccidian parasite on adrenal function.

Cold-stunned loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) strand annually in the northeastern United States and are admitted to rehabilitation facilities when rescued alive. Hematologic and plasma biochemical data were retrospectively evaluated from 133 cold-stunned loggerhead turtles that were admitted for rehabilitation between 2008 and 2016. Convalescent data were compared with initial data for 24 turtles for which paired data were available. Convalescent values for white blood cell count, heterophil count creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, glucose, and uric acid were significantly lower than initial values, whereas convalescent eosinophil count, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, albumin, gamma-glutamyl transferase, total protein, globulin, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, chloride, and potassium were significantly higher. Results indicate that cold-stunned loggerhead turtles may be affected by dehydration, reduced renal function, cellular injury, deranged metabolic status, and activation of the adrenocortical stress response. Specific derangements associated with mortality could not be statistically characterized because only four turtles died.

This study assessed the in vitro temporal changes that occur in blood pH and lactate concentrations for an elasmobranch species and a chelonian species, as well as blood gases (partial pressures of carbon dioxide [pCO2] and oxygen [pO2]) for a chelonian species, with a portable clinical point-of-care analyzer. Blood samples were collected from 10 cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) and 10 red-eared sliders (Pseudemys scripta elegans), stored on ice, and serially analyzed at six time points up to 90 min postcollection. Results indicate that analysis should be conducted as soon as possible after blood collection for these species, with immediate analysis being preferred. However, if analysis must be delayed, syringes may be capped, placed on ice, and analyzed at a later time. Analysis within 90 min provided clinically acceptable results for pH and lactate in both species and for pCO2 in red-eared sliders, whereas substantial artifactual increases of pO2 were seen in red-eared sliders.

This study evaluated the physiologic status of 155 loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) that stranded on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, between 2008 and 2016 after exposure to naturally cold...

This study determined the tissue distribution and activities of eight enzymes in 13 juvenile Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) that died after stranding. Samples from the liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, pancreas, lung, small intestine, and spleen were evaluated for activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), amylase, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and lipase. AST, CK, and LDH activities were highest in cardiac and skeletal muscle but were also found in all other tissues. Amylase and lipase activities were highest in the pancreas and low in all other tissues. ALP activity was highest in the lung. ALT activity was highest in liver, kidney, and cardiac muscle, and GGT activity was highest in the kidney, but activities of these enzymes were low in all tissues. These data may assist clinicians in interpretation of plasma enzyme activities of Kemp's ridley turtles.

Leatherback sea turtles are globally distributed and endangered throughout their range. There are limited data available on disease in this species. Initial observations of solitary large intestinal diverticulitis in multiple leatherbacks led to a multi-institutional review of cases. Of 31 subadult and adult turtles for which complete records were available, all had a single exudate-filled diverticulum, as large as 9.0 cm in diameter, arising from the large intestine immediately distal to the ileocecal junction. All lesions were chronic and characterized by ongoing inflammation, numerous intralesional bacteria, marked attenuation of the muscularis, ulceration, and secondary mucosal changes. In three cases, Morganella morganii was isolated from lesions. Diverticulitis was unrelated to the cause of death in all cases, although risk of perforation and other complications are possible.

Plasma chemistry is widely used in diagnostic and research settings in sea turtles. However, plasma discolorations such as hemolysis are often not considered in data interpretation. The objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate the effects of moderate hemolysis on plasma electrolytes, minerals, and proteins using dry chemistry analysis (DCA) and protein electrophoresis from nesting leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) from Florida and to (2) establish blood analyte reference intervals. Twenty-six plasma samples with absence of hemolysis were selected and sub-divided into one non-hemolytic aliquot and an aliquot that was experimentally manipulated to mimic moderate hemolysis. Plasma samples were analyzed for hemoglobin using a handheld photometer; sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, and total protein using DCA; and protein electrophoresis. Packed cell volume and hemoglobin were measured in corresponding whole blood samples. Reference intervals were established. All analytes except calcium and pre-albumin were significantly higher and the calcium:phosphorus and albumin:globulin ratios were significantly lower in hemolytic plasma compared to non-hemolytic plasma. Alpha2-globulins and potassium were the analytes most impacted by hemolysis, averaging 3.3- and 2.0-fold higher in hemolyzed samples, respectively, indicating that (1) hemoglobin migrates into the alpha2-globulin region in this species and (2) notable intracellular potassium is released into plasma with hemolysis. Attempted conversion factors for compensation of hemolysis were considered inaccurate for 4 of 16 analytes due to non-significant regression lines. We also report that PCV provides an estimate of hemoglobin (g/L) using the formula: (2.59 × PCV) + 24.59. Given the spurious effects of hemolysis, the degree of this artifact should be reported with biochemistry data, and samples with moderate to severe hemolysis should be excluded from datasets when interpreting electrolyte, mineral, and protein results. This will ensure accurate data interpretation for individual turtles in rehabilitation or research settings and population-level data relevant to conservation-focused projects.

A survey of sea turtle rehabilitation facilities in the United States revealed that 34 facilities released 11,417 sea turtles through 2016. The number of turtles released per time period i...

Iohexol clearance testing was used to determine glomerular filtration rates (GFR) for 12 juvenile Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) that stranded because of cold-stunning. Iohexol was injected intravenously at 75 mg/kg, with subsequent plasma collection at 4, 8, and 24 h post-injection for measurement of iohexol iodine concentrations by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Initial GFR was determined on median day 4 of hospitalization (range day 2–5) at an average body temperature of 19°C (66°F) (range 18–21°C [64–70°F]). Mean initial GFR was 4.6 mL/kg/h (range 1.9–8.7 mL/kg/h, n = 10). Convalescent GFR was determined on median day 126 of hospitalization (range day 108–232) at an average body temperature of 24°C (75°F) (range 23–25°C [74–77°F]). Mean convalescent GFR was 13.5 mL/kg/h (range 8.5–21.5 mL/kg/h, n = 10). Statistical analysis of paired initial and convalescent data demonstrated a significantly lower initial GFR, body weight, straight carapace length, and bod...

OBJECTIVE To determine central corneal thickness (total corneal thickness [TCT], epithelial thickness [ET], and stromal thickness [ST]), anterior chamber depth (ACD), and intraocular pressure (IOP) in Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii). DESIGN Prospective cross-sectional study. ANIMALS 25 healthy rehabilitated juvenile Kemp's ridley sea turtles. PROCEDURES Body weight and straight-line standard carapace length (SCL) were recorded. All turtles underwent a complete anterior segment ophthalmic examination. Central TCT, ET, ST, and ACD were determined by use of a spectral-domain optical coherence tomography device. Intraocular pressure was determined with a rebound tonometer; the horse setting was used to measure IOP in all 25 turtles, and the undefined setting was also used to measure IOP in 20 turtles. For each variable, 3 measurements were obtained bilaterally. The mean was calculated for each eye and used for analysis purposes. RESULTS The mean ± SD body weight and SCL were 3.85 ± 1.05 kg (8.47 ± 2.31 lb) and 29 ± 3 cm, respectively. The mean ± SD TCT, ET, ST, and ACD were 288 ± 23 μm, 100 ± 6 μm, 190 ± 19 μm, and 581 ± 128 μm, respectively. Mean ± SD IOP was 6.5 ± 1.0 mm Hg when measured with the horse setting and 3.8 ± 1.1 mm Hg when measured with the undefined setting. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results provided preliminary reference ranges for objective assessment of ophthalmic variables in healthy juvenile Kemp's ridley sea turtles.

Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii), a critically endangered species, frequently strand on the shores of Cape Cod (Massachusetts, USA) in late autumn in a state of "cold-stunning" exhibiting low body temperature and related clinical issues. Stranded turtles are transported to the New England Aquarium (Boston, Massachusetts, USA) for treatment and rehabilitation. This study tested the hypothesis that cold-stunned sea turtles might exhibit high corticosterone ("stress hormone") or low thyroxine (which is often affected by temperature), or both, and that monitoring of both hormones may be useful for assessing recovery. In a retrospective analysis, 87 archived plasma samples were assayed from 56 cold-stunned juvenile Kemp's ridley sea turtles for corticosterone and free thyroxine (fT4). Upon admission, mean corticosterone was the highest yet reported for a population of sea turtles (39.3 +/- 2.5 ng/ml; mean +/- standard error of the mean [SEM]) and fT4 was usually undetectable. On admission, corticosterone was negatively correlated with white blood cell count but was not correlated with blood glucose. There were no differences in either hormone between survivors and nonsurvivors on admission. After 18+ days in recovery, surviving turtles' corticosterone dropped significantly to levels typical of baseline in other species (0.9 +/- 1.0 ng/ml) while fT4 increased significantly (1.3 +/- 1.5 pg/ml). During recovery, corticosterone was positively correlated with blood glucose and was not correlated with white blood cell count. Turtles that showed persistent deficits in feeding, activity, or both during recovery had significantly lower fT4 than did turtles with no such deficits. The "high corticosterone, low fT4" endocrine profile seen on admission may be a useful marker of cold-stunning in this and other species. Further studies are necessary to determine whether low thyroid hormones play a causal role in deficits in feeding and activity during recovery. Monitoring of both hormones may be useful for triage, monitoring of recovery, and assessing readiness for release.

The health, postrelease movements, and behavior of mass stranded Atlantic white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus acutus) and short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, were evaluated. Health was assessed through physical examination and blood analysis. Eleven dolphins (eight white-sided dolphins and three common dolphins) were relocated, outfitted with satellite transmitters, and released during seven mass stranding events. Five transmitters recorded only location, and six also included a time-depth recorder. Transmission duration ranged from 8 h to 218 d, with a mean of 117 d (median = 118 d, SD = 82 d), after release. All dolphins demonstrated extensive movement throughout the Gulf of Maine. The distribution of tagged dolphins was considered normal based on comparisons with published data for these species. Excluding the dolphin that transmitted for only 8 h, mean minimum speeds for individual dolphins ranged from 3.4 to 6.6 km/h; overall mean for all dolphins was 5.4 km/h (SD = 0.9 km/h). The five dolphins with time-depth recorders had mean dive depths of 8.6–40.3 m and mean dive durations of 46–296 s. Hematologic and biochemical data revealed only minor abnormalities. Data suggest that at least 10 of the 11 dolphins were likely successfully reintroduced into the wild.

Objective—To assess selected clinicopathologic variables at hospital admission (day 1) for cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) that died during the first 3 days after admission (nonsurvivors) and turtles that survived (survivors) and to determine the percentage change of each variable from day 1 to day of death (nonsurvivors) or to day 2 or 3 of hospitalization (survivors). Design—Retrospective case-control study. Animals—64 stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles hospitalized from October 2005 through December 2009. Procedures—Blood gas, pH, Hct, and selected biochemical values in blood samples determined on day 1 and day of death (nonsurvivors; n = 32) or day 2 or 3 of hospitalization (survivors; 32) were obtained from medical records. For each variable, initial values and percentage changes (from initial values to values at the day of death or day 2 or 3 of hospitalization) were compared between survivors and nonsurvivors. Results—Compared with blood analysis findings for survivors, nonsurvivors initially had significantly higher potassium concentration and Pco2 and significantly lower Po2, pH, and bicarbonate concentration than did survivors. For the first 2 or 3 days of hospitalization, percentage changes in potassium, lactate, and ionized calcium concentrations were significantly higher and percentage changes in pH and plasma glucose and bicarbonate concentrations were significantly lower in nonsurvivors. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—At hospital admission, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles were affected by metabolic and respiratory derangements; severe derangements were associated with death. Evaluation of blood gas, pH, Hct, and selected clinicopathologic variables provided useful clinical and prognostic information during rehabilitation of cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles.

Limited data on stress physiology exist for leatherback turtles. Examination of 32 leatherback turtles showed that individuals exposed to entanglement, stranding, or entrapment in a weir net had elevated corticosterone and thyroxine compared to healthy controls., Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are exposed to many anthropogenic stressors, yet almost no data on stress physiology exist for this species. As a first step toward understanding the physiological responses of leatherback turtles to stress, and with the particular goal of assessment of the effect of capture, we quantified corticosterone (an adrenal stress hormone) and thyroxine (a regulator of metabolic rate, often inhibited by chronic stress) in 17 healthy leatherback turtles captured at sea for scientific study, with comparisons to 15 ‘distressed’ leatherbacks that were found entangled in fishing gear (n = 8), confined in a weir net (n = 1) or stranded on shore (n = 6). Distressed leatherbacks had significantly elevated corticosterone (mean ± SEM 10.05 ± 1.72 ng/ml, median 8.38 ng/ml) and free thyroxine (mean 0.86 ± 0.37 pg/ml, median 0.08 pg/ml) compared with healthy leatherbacks sampled immediately before release (after ∼40 min of handling; corticosterone, mean 4.97 ± 0.62 ng/ml, median 5.21 ng/ml; and free thyroxine, mean 0.05 ± 0.05 pg/ml, median 0.00 pg/ml). The elevated thyroxine in distressed turtles compared with healthy turtles might indicate an energetic burden of entanglement and stranding. Six of the healthy leatherbacks were sampled twice, at ∼25 and ∼50 min after the time of first disturbance. In all six individuals, corticosterone was higher in the later sample (earlier sample, mean 2.74 ± 0.88 ng/ml, median 2.61 ng/ml; later sample, mean 5.43 ± 1.29 ng/ml, median 5.38 ng/ml), indicating that capture and handling elicit an adrenal stress response in this species. However, the corticosterone elevation after capture appeared relatively mild compared with the corticosterone concentrations of the entangled and stranded turtles. The findings suggest that capture and handling using the protocols described (e.g. capture duration

Health evaluations were conducted in the northwestern Atlantic for 19 leatherback turtles, which included 12 turtles directly captured as part of a satellite telemetry study and 7 turtles entangled in fishing gear. Assessment included physical examination; determination of heart rate and respiratory rate; and hematologic, plasma biochemical, nutritional, toxicologic, parasitologic, and microbiological investigations. Significant differences were found between directly captured and entangled turtles for curved carapace length, curved carapace width, blood urea nitrogen, chloride, sodium, triglycerides, relative heterophil count, relative monocyte count, relative and absolute eosinophil count, pH, bicarbonate, lead, and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Directly captured turtles showed evidence of mild respiratory acidosis. Significant differences were found between sexes for curved carapace length, curved carapace width, total protein, globulin, sodium, relative monocyte count, gamma-globulin, and anion gap. Relatively high blood concentrations of selenium and cadmium were found in all turtles.

The development of endosurgical techniques for chelonians has reduced the need for more invasive approaches such as plastron osteotomy. Surgical access and manipulation of much of the coelomic viscera of chelonians can be accomplished using endoscopy. Endoscopic methods may be used to perform many chelonian reproductive surgical procedures, including oophorectomy, salpingotomy, salpingectomy, gender identification, and removal of ectopic eggs.

Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) are a critically endangered marine species found along the eastern coast of the United States and Mexico. During autumn and early winter, turtles in the northern end of this range may become cold-stunned and stranded if they fail to migrate to warmer waters. Depending on the time of day that stranded turtles are discovered, turtles may be kept overnight by stranding officials before being hospitalized. Turtles for which hospitalization was delayed overnight had higher respiratory rates, packed cell volumes, plasma total solids, and blood potassium concentrations in comparison to turtles that were hospitalized on the day of stranding. There was no significant difference in outcome for turtles presented immediately versus those affected by delayed presentation. These findings suggest that cold-stunned turtles affected by an overnight hospitalization delay may benefit from basic medical treatments, such as fluid therapy, until they can be transferred to a ...

Objective—To document hematologic and plasma biochemical values for a large number of cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles at the beginning of rehabilitation, to investigate differences in hematologic and plasma biochemical values of turtles that ultimately survived versus those that died, and to compare values of survivors during convalescence with initial values obtained at the time of admission. Design—Retrospective case series. Animals—176 stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles hospitalized between 2001 and 2005. Procedures—Hematologic and plasma biochemical values obtained at the time of admission were compared retrospectively for turtles that died versus turtles that survived. Initial results for survivors were compared with convalescent results obtained later in rehabilitation. Results—Turtles that died had significantly greater plasma concentrations of sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and uric acid than did turtles that survived. For survivors, values obtained during convalescence for BUN concentration and plasma calcium concentration were significantly greater than initial values obtained at the time of admission, whereas values obtained during convalescence for glucose, sodium, and uric acid concentrations were significantly lower than initial values. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles may be affected by electrolyte derangements, dehydration, and decreased renal function. Hematologic and plasma biochemical evaluation of such turtles provided useful clinical and prognostic information during the rehabilitation process.

Necropsy reports for 28 stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) that died between 2001 and 2006 were reviewed retrospectively. Gross and microscopic lesions were compiled to describe the pathologic and parasitologic findings in turtles that were found freshly dead on the beach or that died within 48 hr of stranding. Anatomic lesions of varying severity were identified in each of the examined turtles and were identified in tissues of the alimentary, respiratory, integumentary, nervous and sensory, and urogenital systems in order of decreasing frequency. Necrotizing enterocolitis and bacterial or fungal pneumonia were the most frequently encountered lesions that were considered clinically significant. Parasites and parasitic lesions were identified primarily in tissues of the alimentary system and included intestinal cestodiasis and parasitic granulomas containing larval cestodes or nematodes. Postlarval cestodes were also found in the coelom of two turtles. In many cases, the extent and severity of lesions were judged to be insufficient to have solely caused mortality, suggesting that additional factors such as metabolic, respiratory, and electrolyte derangements; hypothermia; and drowning may be important proximate causes of death in cold-stunned turtles. Results of this study provide insight into pathologic conditions that may be of clinical relevance to rehabilitation efforts for cold-stunned sea turtles.

Whole blood and keratin mercury concentrations, complete blood cell counts, and plasma biochemical health profiles were evaluated in 31 juvenile cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from Cape Cod, Massachusetts. In addition, plasma copper, zinc, selenium, and cadmium concentrations were measured for 16 of these turtles. Liver mercury concentrations were measured for 6 turtles that were dead upon acquisition or died during rehabilitation. Concentrations of 18 organochlorine pesticides were measured in plasma of 18 live turtles, and liver, kidney, fat, and brain of 3 deceased turtles. Metal levels were generally similar to those previously published for sea turtles, with mean values (wet weight) of 24 ng/g for blood mercury, 67 ng/g for liver mercury, 389 ng/g for keratin mercury, 690 ng/g for plasma copper, 2290 ng/g for plasma zinc, and 490 ng/g for plasma selenium. Cadmium was not detected in any sample. Organochlorine levels were generally low in comparison to values publish...

Osteolytic appendicular skeletal lesions in eight-stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) were evaluated using radiography and skeletal scintigraphy. Radiographic studies were performed monthly in most animals. Follow-up scintigraphy was performed 45-120 days after the initial exams in six turtles. Radiographically, lesions slowly progressed from an early osteolytic process contained to either the proximal or distal end of long bones, to a later stage characterized by thickening of the affected bone, sclerosis, and remodeling of the lesion borders. In seven turtles, the initial scintigrams were characterized by at least one focus of abnormal radiopharmaceutical uptake that correlated with a lytic site noted in radiographs. In five turtles, scintigraphic lesions were characterized by asymmetric radiopharmaceutical uptake rather than by increased intensity of uptake. Scintigraphic studies obtained more than 4 months after the appearance of clinical and radiographic signs had minimal, if any, abnormal radiopharmaceutical uptake, despite the persistence of abnormal radiographic findings. Skeletal scintigraphy is an effective method for more precisely determining if and when these animals can be returned to the wild. Animals were released if normal radiopharmaceutical uptake was seen during initial examination, or if decreased uptake was noted between serial examinations. In four of the turtles, resolution of abnormal scintigraphic findings permitted an objective decision to discontinue antibiotic and antifungal therapy. Seven of the eight turtles were released after correlation of the clinical signs with the imaging findings. Radiographs, however, are still needed to facilitate the correct identification of lesions with scintigraphy.

Twenty-six (one to six years of age) Chinese water dragons, Physignathus cocincinus, from two different captive populations, Massachusetts (MA) and Mississippi (MS), were selected for this study. The lizards were given a thorough examination, and a blood sample was collected for a complete blood count (CBC) and plasma biochemistry. Whole blood was stored in both lithium heparin and Ca- EDTA; Ca-EDTA was considered the superior anticoagulant based on multiple paired samples. The packed cell volume (PCV) for the water dragons was 32 - 40%. The lymphocyte was the most common cell found on the CBC. There were significant differences in the plasma uric acid (MS: 2.3; MA 6.0; p=0.001) and phosphorus (MS: 5.7, MA:7.1; p=0.04) concentrations between the two populations. Younger dragons ( 3 yr: 2.3, p=0.01) than dragons > 3 yr of age. There were no significant differences in the bio- chemistries based on the origin (wild-caught vs. captive bred) of the lizards or between genders. Overall, the dragons in this study were clinically healthy, and the reference range established from these two pop- ulations may be used as a basis for comparison in clinical cases.

The study of reproductive diseases of chelonians has become increasingly sophisticated in the last decade. Widespread captive breeding has increased the number of reproductive problems presented to veterinarians. Advances in the level of veterinary care have encouraged chelonians owners to seek solutions to problems that may have previously been considered unsolvable. Improved diagnostic imaging, particularly radiography, ultrasonography and endoscopy, have made visualization and diagnosis of reproductive disease easier. Better quality veterinary care has made treatment of chelonian diseases more sophisticated which has lead to improved methods of anesthesia, surgery, and medicine. Concerns over rapidly diminishing chelonian populations and habitat have made the need for study of reproduction a higher priority; veterinary medicine has gained from this research.