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T-cell immunoglobulin mucin family member 3 (Tim-3) is an immune checkpoint receptor that dampens effector functions and causes terminal exhaustion of cytotoxic T cells. Tim-3 inhibitors are under investigation in immuno-oncology (IO) trials, because blockade of T-cell-Tim-3 enhances antitumor immunity. Here, we identify an additional role for Tim-3 as a growth-suppressive receptor intrinsic to melanoma cells. Inhibition of melanoma cell-Tim-3 promoted tumor growth in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised mice, while melanoma-specific Tim-3 overexpression attenuated tumorigenesis. Ab-mediated Tim-3 blockade inhibited growth of immunogenic murine melanomas in T-cell–competent hosts, consistent with established antitumor effects of T-cell-Tim-3 inhibition. In contrast, Tim-3 Ab administration stimulated tumorigenesis of both highly and lesser immunogenic murine and human melanomas in T-cell–deficient mice, confirming growth-promoting effects of melanoma-Tim-3 antagonism. Melanoma-Tim-3 activation suppressed, while its blockade enhanced, phosphorylation of pro-proliferative downstream MAPK signaling mediators. Finally, pharmacologic MAPK inhibition reversed unwanted Tim-3 Ab-mediated tumorigenesis in T-cell–deficient mice and enhanced desired antitumor activity of Tim-3 interference in T-cell–competent hosts. These results identify melanoma-Tim-3 blockade as a mechanism that antagonizes T-cell-Tim-3–directed IO therapeutic efficacy. They further reveal MAPK targeting as a combination strategy for circumventing adverse consequences of unintended melanoma-Tim-3 inhibition.Significance:Tim-3 is a growth-suppressive receptor intrinsic to melanoma cells, the blockade of which promotes MAPK-dependent tumorigenesis and thus counteracts antitumor activity of T-cell–directed Tim-3 inhibition.

Supplementary Data from Inhibition of Melanoma Cell–Intrinsic Tim-3 Stimulates MAPK-Dependent Tumorigenesis

PDF file - 125K, Chemokine receptor expression is variably expressed on human PCa cell lines and on localized and metastatic PCa tissue

WMV file - 3MB, Condensed video of FT7+ PCa cell breaching of vascular endothelium

PDF file - 178K, FT expression generates E-selectin-binding determinants on PCa cell glycoproteins and glycolipids

PDF file - 275K

PDF file - 196K, PCa cells prominently express beta1 and alphaVbeta3 integrins

PDF file - 213K, beta1 and alphaVbeta3 are constitutively active and mediate PCa cell adhesion

WMV file - 2.7MB, Condensed video of empty vector PCa cell breaching of vascular endothelium

PDF file - 137K, Modulating FT expression does not alter PCa cell integrin expression or function

Melanoma is a relatively rare skin cancer. However, it accounts for most of all skin cancer-related deaths worldwide. Once melanoma spreads to distant sites, it confers a poor prognosis characterized by resistance to therapy and high mortality rate. Hence, a favorable clinical outcome is strongly correlated with early diagnosis. Despite the ongoing research to identify novel diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic targets for metastatic melanoma (MM), a reliable serum marker to predict whether melanoma is vulnerable to metastasize or has already metastasized is still lacking. Galectin-3 (Gal-3), a ß-galactoside-binding protein, is widely expressed by many human epithelial and immune cells. High extracellular Gal-3 expression levels have been reported to be positively correlated with late-stage disease in melanoma patients, where it is theorized to bind surface glycosylated proteins to promote melanoma cell invasion and metastasis. Gal-3 is also expressed intracellularly where it participates in the regulation of many biological processes. However, intrinsic Gal-3 levels within the melanoma cell and its relationship to melanoma progression is still poorly understood. Using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, we analyzed the Gal-3 expression profiles of 471 tumor samples obtained from melanoma patients. To our surprise, TCGA data analysis has shown significantly higher expression of Gal-3 in primary melanoma samples compared to metastatic melanoma. We hypothesize that intracellular Gal-3 potentially negatively regulates primary melanoma progression to metastatic disease. Using several human melanoma cell lines silenced for Gal-3 expression, we investigated the corresponding malignancy-associated activities of these cells. Our results revealed that Gal-3 silencing in melanoma cells potentiated melanoma migration, invasion, and colony formation, compared with mock controls, suggesting that intracellular Gal-3 could interfere with melanoma metastatic activity. Moreover, loss of Gal-3 boosted the activation of the PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling pathways and upregulated nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT1) expression and its pro-metastatic downstream target genes. Importantly, this study illuminates the apparent opposing roles of Gal-3 in melanoma progression, with intracellular Gal-3 potentially serving as a metastasis-suppressive molecule. Moreover, these studies reveal the potential of analyzing melanoma cell-intrinsic levels of Gal-3 to better predict metastatic potential and clinical outcome in melanoma patients. Citation Format: Norhan B. B. Mohammed, Charles J. Dimitroff. The metastasis-suppressive function of intracellular galectin-3 in melanoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2023; Part 1 (Regular and Invited Abstracts); 2023 Apr 14-19; Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(7_Suppl):Abstract nr 3602.

The prognosis for patients with metastatic melanoma (MM) involving distant organs is grim, and treatment resistance is potentiated by tumor-initiating cells (TICs) that thrive under hypoxia. MM cells, including TICs, express a unique glycome featuring i-linear poly-N-acetyllactosamines through the loss of I-branching enzyme, β1,6 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2. Whether hypoxia instructs MM TIC development by modulating the glycome signature remains unknown. In this study, we explored hypoxia-dependent alterations in MM glycome–associated genes and found that β1,6 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2 was downregulated and a galectin (Gal)-8eligand axis, involving both extracellular and cell-intrinsic Gal-8, was induced. Low β1,6 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2 levels correlated with poor patient outcomes, and patient serum samples were elevated for Gal-8. Depressed β1,6 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2 in MM cells upregulated TIC marker, NGFR/CD271, whereas loss of MM cell–intrinsic Gal-8 markedly lowered NGFR and reduced TIC activity in vivo. Extracellular Gal-8 bound preferentially to i-linear poly-N-acetyllactosamines on N-glycans of the TIC marker and prometastatic molecule CD44, among other receptors, and activated prosurvival factor protein kinase B. This study reveals the importance of hypoxia governing the MM glycome by enforcing i-linear poly-N-acetyllactosamine and Gal-8 expression. This mechanistic investigation also uncovers glycome-dependent regulation of pro-MM factor, NGFR, implicating i-linear poly-N-acetyllactosamine and Gal-8 as biomarkers and therapeutic targets of MM.

The reported roles of the β-galactoside-binding lectin family, known as galectins, in disease development have been advancing at a remarkable pace. Galectins and their glycan counter-receptor ligands are now considered key functional determinants in malignant and metastatic progression, tumor immune evasion, autoimmunity, and immune homeostasis. Their influence in these processes is elicited through coordinated expression in tumor, immune and stromal cellular compartments. While analysis of galectin levels in related research efforts is routinely performed through immunoassays and RT-qPCR, detection, and identification of glycan counter-receptor ligands in their native form on the cell surface has lagged. In this report, we present methods to detect and identify glycan counter-receptor ligands to galectin (Gal)-3 and Gal-9—two galectins at the crosshairs of cancer and immunology research. As a model, we will describe (1) isolation of human B-cell subsets from fresh tonsil tissue, (2) assaying of Gal-3/−9-binding activities on human B cells, and (3) identifying Gal-3/−9 ligands on human B-cell surfaces. These methods, of course, can be implemented on any cell type to provide a cellular and molecular context capable of transmitting a galectin-mediated phenotype. Establishing a galectin-binding activity on specific counter-receptor ligand(s) can help unearth potential critical determinants capable of delivering cellular signals required for disease progression. These advances open new avenues of research investigation that result in novel therapeutic targets and approaches.

Background: Aberrant protein glycosylation is a common feature of cancer and contributes to malignant behavior. However, how and to what extent the cellular glycome is involved in cancer development and progression is still undefined. The primary objective of this study is to conduct insilico identification of glycome genes that could reveal a signature of cancer using expression profiles of cancer genomes. There exists a list of $\sim 500$ glycome genes in several molecular categories. This study is based on the hypothesis that if the glycosylation is a common feature of cancer, there exists a shortlist of cancer glycome genes and their expression profiles should carry the signature capable of differentiating 33 different cancers available in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA).Method: The distribution of cancer samples in TCGA is highly imbalanced, ranging from 36 for Cholangiocarcinoma (CHOL) to 1089 for Breast Cancer (BRCA). Supervised feature selection approaches to identify the signature genes would be biased to larger groups. We developed a computational framework using concrete autoencoder (CAE), a deep learning-based unsupervised feature selection algorithm, to find the cancer-related glycome genes. The criteria of optimal feature subset used in this study are (a) the number of features should be as few as possible, and (b) accuracy of classification using the selected features should be >90%.Results: Our experiment showed a shortlist of glycome genes (132 genes) that can differentiate 33 different cancers with an accuracy of 92%. This study reflects that the cancer glycome genes signify the origins of cancer.

Humoral immunity is reliant on efficient recruitment of circulating naive B cells from blood into peripheral lymph nodes (LN) and timely transition of naive B cells to high affinity antibody (Ab)-producing cells. Current understanding of factor(s) coordinating B cell adhesion, activation and differentiation within LN, however, is incomplete. Prior studies on naive B cells reveal remarkably strong binding to putative immunoregulator, galectin (Gal)-9, that attenuates BCR activation and signaling, implicating Gal-9 as a negative regulator in B cell biology. Here, we investigated Gal-9 localization in human tonsils and LNs and unearthed conspicuously high expression of Gal-9 on high endothelial and post-capillary venules. Adhesion analyses showed that Gal-9 can bridge human circulating and naive B cells to vascular endothelial cells (EC), while decelerating transendothelial migration. Moreover, Gal-9 interactions with naive B cells induced global transcription of gene families related to regulation of cell signaling and membrane/cytoskeletal dynamics. Signaling lymphocytic activation molecule F7 (SLAMF7) was among key immunoregulators elevated by Gal-9-binding, while SLAMF7's cytosolic adapter EAT-2, which is required for cell activation, was eliminated. Gal-9 also activated phosphorylation of pro-survival factor, ERK. Together, these data suggest that Gal-9 promotes B cell - EC interactions while delivering anergic signals to control B cell reactivity.

Leukocytes are coated with a layer of heterogeneous carbohydrates (glycans) that modulate immune function, in part by governing specific interactions with glycan-binding proteins (lectins). Although nearly all membrane proteins bear glycans, the identity and function of most of these sugars on leukocytes remain unexplored. Here, we characterize the N-glycan repertoire (N-glycome) of human tonsillar B cells. We observe that naive and memory B cells express an N-glycan repertoire conferring strong binding to the immunoregulatory lectin galectin-9 (Gal-9). Germinal center B cells, by contrast, show sharply diminished binding to Gal-9 due to upregulation of I-branched N-glycans, catalyzed by the β1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase GCNT2. Functionally, we find that Gal-9 is autologously produced by naive B cells, binds CD45, suppresses calcium signaling via a Lyn-CD22-SHP-1 dependent mechanism, and blunts B cell activation. Thus, our findings suggest Gal-9 intrinsically regulates B cell activation and may differentially modulate BCR signaling at steady state and within germinal centers., Leukocytes are coated with glycans that modulate immune function through interactions with lectins. Here, the authors characterize the N-glycan repertoire of human tonsillar B cells. They report that Gal-9 is an intrinsic regulator of B cell activation that may differentially modulate BCR signaling at steady state and within germinal centers due to expression of I-branched glycans.

Cancer immunotherapy and its budding effectiveness at improving patient outcomes has revitalized our hope to fight cancer in a logical and safe manner. Immunotherapeutic approaches to reengage the immune system have largely focused on reversing immune checkpoint inhibitor pathways, which suppress the antitumor response. Although these approaches have generated much excitement, they still lack absolute success. Interestingly, newly described host-tumor sugar chains (glycosylations) and glycosylation-binding proteins (lectins) play key roles in evading the immune system to determine cancer progression. In this issue of the JCI, Nambiar et al. used patient head and neck tumors and a mouse model system to investigate the role of galactose-binding lectin 1 (Gal1) in immunotherapy resistance. The authors demonstrated that Gal1 can affect immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy by increasing immune checkpoint molecules and immunosuppressive signaling in the tumor. Notably, these results suggest that targeting a tumor's glycobiological state will improve treatment efficacy.

Metastatic melanoma is a lethal disease with a dismal 5-year survival rate. Thus, intense efforts to boost novel therapeutic strategies are underway to identify early detection of melanomas with a high propensity to metastasize. We recently discovered that the loss of cell surface glycan, I-antigen, corresponds with the transition of primary melanoma to metastatic melanoma. I-antigen or I-branched glycans are synthesized by β16, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2 (GCNT2) and inversely correlate with the growth and signaling potential of metastatic melanoma cells. Moreover, compared with high GCNT2 expression in normal melanocytes, nevi, and early-stage primary melanomas, GCNT2 is conspicuously lost in metastatic melanomas. We anticipate the potential utilization of GCNT2 expression as a biomarker to predict melanoma metastasis. Further, metastasis and aggressive disease progression are key phenotypes of tumor-initiating cells (TIC), which are preferentially generated in areas of hypoxia. In the vertical growth phase of primary melanomas and melanoma metastases, the tumor microenvironment is typically hypoxic (1.5% oxygen). We hypothesize that the hypoxic microenvironment aids in metastatic melanoma progression through TIC generation and immune evasion, by downregulating GCNT2 and switching I-branched glycans to linear glycans. In this study, metastatic melanoma cells grown under hypoxic conditions had reduced GCNT2 and MITF with upregulated stem cell marker KLF4 expression. Importantly, in the in vivo TIC assay, we found significantly decreased tumor formation with increased GCNT2 expression while low GCNT2 levels enabled tumor formation even when 103 cells were injected in immunocompromised mice. Since TICs are thought to evade immune clearance, we investigated whether loss of GCNT2 increased TIC characteristics and also enabled immunosuppressive features. In human PBMC - metastatic melanoma co-cultures, there was an increase in T regulatory cell generation associated with low GCNT2 compared to high GCNT2 expression in melanoma cells, suggesting that loss of GCNT2 associates with increased TIC generation, tumor formation, and immunoevasion potential. Using melanoma patient specimens, immunohistochemical analysis of GCNT2 corresponded with a significant increase in mortality with the loss of GCNT2 staining. Altogether, these findings highlight GCNT2/I-branching not only as a biomarker of melanoma virulence but reveal malignancy-associated pathways functioning in parallel with loss of GCNT2/I-branching that could offer additional targets for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Citation Format: Asmi Chakraborty, Mariana Perez, Norhan B. B Mohammed, Michael Wells, James S. Wilmott, John F. Thompson, Stuart M. Haslam, Wei Wang, Richard A. Scolyer, George F. Murphy, Charles J. Dimitroff. Hypoxia-mediated downregulation of GCNT2/I-antigen in metastatic melanoma accelerates disease progression and mortality [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2021; 2021 Apr 10-15 and May 17-21. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(13_Suppl):Abstract nr 2609.

Pregnancy-specific beta 1 glycoprotein (PSG1) is secreted from trophoblast cells of the human placenta in increasing concentrations as pregnancy progresses, becoming one of the most abundant proteins in maternal serum in the third trimester. PSG1 has seven potential N-linked glycosylation sites across its four domains. We carried out glycomic and glycoproteomic studies to characterize the glycan composition of PSG1 purified from serum of pregnant women and identified the presence of complex N-glycans containing poly LacNAc epitopes with α2,3 sialyation at four sites. Using different techniques, we explored whether PSG1 can bind to galectin-1 (Gal-1) as these two proteins were previously shown to participate in processes required for a successful pregnancy. We confirmed that PSG1 binds to Gal-1 in a carbohydrate-dependent manner with an affinity of the interaction of 0.13 μM. In addition, we determined that out of the three N-glycosylation-carrying domains, only the N and A2 domains of recombinant PSG1 interact with Gal-1. Lastly, we observed that the interaction between PSG1 and Gal-1 protects this lectin from oxidative inactivation and that PSG1 competes the ability of Gal-1 to bind to some but not all of its glycoprotein ligands.

Cell surface carbohydrates, termed “glycans,” are ubiquitous posttranslational effectors that can tune cancer progression. Often aberrantly displayed or found at atypical levels on cancer cells, glycans can impact essentially all progressive steps, from malignant transformation to metastases formation. Glycans are structural entities that can directly bind promalignant glycan-binding proteins and help elicit optimal receptor–ligand activity of growth factor receptors, integrins, integrin ligands, lectins, and other type-1 transmembrane proteins. Because glycans play an integral role in a cancer cell’s malignant activity and are frequently uniquely expressed, preclinical studies on the suitability of glycans as anticancer therapeutic targets and their promise as biomarkers of disease progression continue to intensify. While sialylation and fucosylation have predominated the focus of cancer-associated glycan modifications, the emergence of blood group I antigens (or I-branched glycans) as key cell surface moieties capable of modulating cancer virulence has reenergized investigations into the role of the glycome in malignant progression. I-branched glycans catalyzed principally by the I-branching enzyme GCNT2 are now indicated in several malignancies. In this Perspective, the putative role of GCNT2/I-branching in cancer progression is discussed, including exciting insights on how I-branches can potentially antagonize the cancer-promoting activity of β-galactose–binding galectins.

Cancer cells commonly display aberrant surface glycans and related glycoconjugate scaffolds. Compared with their normal counterparts, cancer cell glycans are variably produced and often structurally distinct, serving as biomarkers of cancer progression or as functional entities to malignancy. The glycan signature of a cancer cell is created by the collaborative activities of glycosyltransferases, glycosidases, nucleotide-sugar transporters, sulfotransferases, and glycan-bearing protein/lipid scaffolds. In a coordinated fashion, these factors regulate the synthesis of cancer cell glycans and thus are considered correlates of cancer cell behavior. Functionally, cancer cell glycans can serve as binding targets for endogenous lectin effectors, such as C-type selectins and S-type galectins. There has been a recent surge of important observations of the role of glycosytransferases, specifically α2,6 sialyltransferases, in regulating the length and lectin-binding features of serine/threonine (O)-glycans found on cancer cells. The capping activity of O-glycan–specific α2,6 sialyltransferases, in particular, has been found to regulate cancer growth and metastasis in a galectin-dependent manner. These findings highlight the functional importance of cancer cell O-glycans and related galectin-binding features in the virulent activity of cancer and raise the prospect of targeting cancer cell glycans as effective anticancer therapeutics. Cancer Res; 75(16); 3195–202. ©2015 AACR.

Background: The interaction between human prostate cancer (PCa) cells and bone marrow (BM) endothelium follows a rolling-and-adhesion cascade mediated by E-selectin ligand (ESL): E-selectin. This adhesion is enabled by elevated expression of α-1,3-fucosyltransferases (FTs), enzymes responsible for ESL-mediated bone metastasis in humans. In contrast, the incidence of bone metastasis in mice is rare. Methods: FT 3, 6 and 7 were overexpressed in mouse PCa cells. The rolling cell number, cell-rolling velocity and transendothelial migration were characterised in vitro. Fucosyltransferases-transduced mouse PCa cells expressing luciferase were inoculated into mice via left ventricle to compare the capability of bone metastasis. Mass spectrometry and immunoprecipitation were utilised for identification of ESLs. Results: Overexpression of FT3, FT6 or FT7 restored ESLs and enabled mouse PCa cells to roll and adhere in E-selectin-functionalised microtubes, similar to trafficking of circulating PCa cells in BM vessels. Following intracardiac inoculation, FT6-transduced cells induced robust bone metastasis in mice. Inhibition of FT6 by a fucose mimetic significantly reduced bone metastasis. Importantly, comparison of FT3, FT6 and FT7 gene expression in existing clinical samples showed significant upregulation of FT6 in PCa-distant metastases. Conclusion: FT6 is a key mediator of PCa cells trafficking to the BM. It may serve as a viable drug target in preclinical tests of therapeutics for reduction of PCa bone metastasis.

Advanced prostate cancer commonly metastasizes to bone, but transit of malignant cells across the bone marrow endothelium (BMEC) remains a poorly understood step in metastasis. Prostate cancer cells roll on E-selectin+ BMEC through E-selectin ligand-binding interactions under shear flow, and prostate cancer cells exhibit firm adhesion to BMEC via β1, β4, and αVβ3 integrins in static assays. However, whether these discrete prostate cancer cell–BMEC adhesive contacts culminate in cooperative, step-wise transendothelial migration into bone is not known. Here, we describe how metastatic prostate cancer cells breach BMEC monolayers in a step-wise fashion under physiologic hemodynamic flow. Prostate cancer cells tethered and rolled on BMEC and then firmly adhered to and traversed BMEC via sequential dependence on E-selectin ligands and β1 and αVβ3 integrins. Expression analysis in human metastatic prostate cancer tissue revealed that β1 was markedly upregulated compared with expression of other β subunits. Prostate cancer cell breaching was regulated by Rac1 and Rap1 GTPases and, notably, did not require exogenous chemokines as β1, αVβ3, Rac1, and Rap1 were constitutively active. In homing studies, prostate cancer cell trafficking to murine femurs was dependent on E-selectin ligand, β1 integrin, and Rac1. Moreover, eliminating E-selectin ligand-synthesizing α1,3 fucosyltransferases in transgenic adenoma of mouse prostate mice dramatically reduced prostate cancer incidence. These results unify the requirement for E-selectin ligands, α1,3 fucosyltransferases, β1 and αVβ3 integrins, and Rac/Rap1 GTPases in mediating prostate cancer cell homing and entry into bone and offer new insight into the role of α1,3 fucosylation in prostate cancer development. Cancer Res; 73(2); 942–52. ©2012 AACR.

Cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells are major players of anti-tumor immune responses, as their functional activity can limit tumor growth and progression. Data show that cytotoxic T cells efficiently control the proliferation of tumor cells through major histocompatibility complex class I-mediated mechanisms; nevertheless, the presence of tumor-infiltrating CD8(+) T cells in lesional tissue does not always correlate with better prognosis and increased survival of cancer patients. Similarly, adoptive transfer of tumor-specific cytotoxic T cells has only shown marginal improvement in life spans of patients with metastatic disease. In this report, we discuss experimental evidence showing that expression of tumor-derived galectins, galectin (Gal)-1, Gal-3 and Gal-9, and concomitant presence of their ligands on the surface of anti-tumor immunocytes directly compromise anti-tumor CD8(+) T cell immune responses and, perhaps, undermine the promise of adoptive CD8(+) T cell immunotherapy. Furthermore, we describe novel strategies designed to counteract Gal-1-, Gal-3- and Gal-9-mediated effects and highlight their targeting potential for creating more effective anti-tumor immune responses. We believe that Gal and their ligands represent an efficacious targeted molecular paradigm that warrants clinical evaluation.

Tumor-derived galectin-1 (Gal-1), a β-galactoside–binding S-type lectin, has been shown to encourage T-cell death and promote T cell–mediated tumor immune escape. In this report, we show that patients with leukemic cutaneous T-cell lymphomas, known to have limited complexity of their T-cell repertoires, have a predominant T helper type-2 (Th2) cytokine profile and significantly elevated plasma levels of Gal-1 compared with healthy controls. Circulating clonal malignant T cells were a major source of Gal-1. The conditioned supernatant of cultured malignant T cells induced a β-galactoside–dependent inhibition of normal T-cell proliferation and a Th2 skewing of cytokine production. These data implicate Gal-1 in development of the Th2 phenotype in patients with advanced-stage cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and highlight the Gal-1–Gal-1 ligand axis as a potential therapeutic target for enhancing antitumor immune responses.

Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a β-galactoside–binding protein, can alter fate and effector function of Th cells; however, little is known about how Gal-1 induces Th cell differentiation. In this article, we show that both uncommitted and polarized Th cells bound by Gal-1 expressed an immunoregulatory signature defined by IL-10. IL-10 synthesis was stimulated by direct Gal-1 engagement to cell surface glycoproteins, principally CD45, on activated Th cells and enhanced by IL-21 expression through the c-Maf/aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway, independent of APCs. Gal-1–induced IL-10+ T cells efficiently suppressed T cell proliferation and T cell-mediated inflammation and promoted the establishment of cancer immune-privileged sites. Collectively, these findings show how Gal-1 functions as a major glycome determinant regulating Th cell development, inflammation, and tumor immunity.

Prior studies have shown that treatment with the peracetylated 4-fluorinated analog of glucosamine (4-F-GlcNAc) elicits anti-skin inflammatory activity by ablating N-acetyllactosamine (LacNAc), sialyl Lewis X (sLe(X)), and related lectin ligands on effector leukocytes. Based on anti-sLe(X) antibody and lectin probing experiments on 4-F-GlcNAc-treated leukocytes, it was hypothesized that 4-F-GlcNAc inhibited sLe(X) formation by incorporating into LacNAc and blocking the addition of galactose or fucose at the carbon 4-position of 4-F-GlcNAc. To test this hypothesis, we determined whether 4-F-GlcNAc is directly incorporated into N- and O-glycans released from 4-F-GlcNAc-treated human sLe(X) (+) T cells and leukemic KG1a cells. At concentrations that abrogated galectin-1 (Gal-1) ligand and E-selectin ligand expression and related LacNAc and sLe(X) structures, MALDI-TOF and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry analyses showed that 4-F-GlcNAc 1) reduced content and structural diversity of tri- and tetra-antennary N-glycans and of O-glycans, 2) increased biantennary N-glycans, and 3) reduced LacNAc and sLe(X) on N-glycans and on core 2 O-glycans. Moreover, MALDI-TOF MS did not reveal any m/z ratios relating to the presence of fluorine atoms, indicating that 4-F-GlcNAc did not incorporate into glycans. Further analysis showed that 4-F-GlcNAc treatment had minimal effect on expression of 1200 glycome-related genes and did not alter the activity of LacNAc-synthesizing enzymes. However, 4-F-GlcNAc dramatically reduced intracellular levels of uridine diphosphate-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), a key precursor of LacNAc synthesis. These data show that Gal-1 and E-selectin ligand reduction by 4-F-GlcNAc is not caused by direct 4-F-GlcNAc glycan incorporation and consequent chain termination but rather by interference with UDP-GlcNAc synthesis.

T cell recruitment into inflamed skin is dependent on skin-homing receptor binding to endothelial (E)- and platelet (P)-selectin. These T cell receptors, or E- and P-selectin ligands, can be targeted by the metabolic fluorosugar inhibitor, 4-F-GlcNAc, to blunt cutaneous inflammation. Compelling new data indicate that, in addition to T cells, NK cells are also recruited to inflamed skin in allergic contact hypersensitivity (CHS) contingent on E- and P-selectin-binding. Using a model of allergic CHS, we evaluated the identity and impact of NK cell E-selectin ligand(s) on inflammatory responses and examined the oral efficacy of 4-F-GlcNAc. We demonstrated that the predominant E-selectin ligands on NK cells are P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 and protease-resistant glycolipids. We showed that, unlike the induced E-selectin ligand expression on activated T cells upon exposure to Ag, ligand expression on NK cells was constitutive. CHS responses were significantly lowered by orally administered 4-F-GlcNAc treatment. Although E-selectin ligand on activated T cells was suppressed, ligand expression on NK cells was insensitive to 4-F-GlcNAc treatment. These findings indicate that downregulating effector T cell E- and P-selectin ligand expression directly correlates with anti-inflammatory efficacy and provides new insight on metabolic discrepancies of E-selectin ligand biosynthesis in effector leukocytes in vivo.

Inflammation and cancer metastasis are associated with extravasation of leukocytes or tumor cells from blood into tissue. Such movement is believed to follow a coordinated and sequential molecular cascade initiated, in part, by the three members of the selectin family of carbohydrate-binding proteins: E-selectin (CD62E), L-selectin (CD62L) and P-selectin (CD62P). E-selectin is particularly noteworthy in disease by virtue of its expression on activated endothelium and on bone-skin microvascular linings and for its role in cell rolling, cell signaling and chemotaxis. E-selectin, along with L- or P-selectin, mediates cell tethering and rolling interactions through the recognition of sialo-fucosylated Lewis carbohydrates expressed on structurally diverse protein-lipid ligands on circulating leukocytes or tumor cells. Major advances in understanding the role of E-selectin in inflammation and cancer have been advanced by experiments assaying E-selectin-mediated rolling of leukocytes and tumor cells under hydrodynamic shear flow, by clinical models of E-selectin-dependent inflammation, by mice deficient in E-selectin and by mice deficient in glycosyltransferases that regulate the binding activity of E-selectin ligands. Here, the authors elaborate on how E-selectin and its ligands may facilitate leukocyte or tumor cell recruitment in inflammatory and metastatic settings. Antagonists that target cellular interactions with E-selectin and other members of the selectin family, including neutralizing monoclonal antibodies, competitive ligand inhibitors or metabolic carbohydrate mimetics, exemplify a growing arsenal of potentially effective therapeutics in controlling inflammation and the metastatic behavior of cancer.

Human memory T cells associated with cutaneous inflammatory responses are characterized by their expression of cutaneous lymphocyte-associated Ag (CLA), a carbohydrate determinant differentially expressed on P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1). Although expression of the CLA epitope on PSGL-1 (CLA+ PSGL-1) by memory T cells is associated with acquisition of E-selectin ligand activity, it is not known whether CLA+ PSGL-1, itself, is a ligand for E-selectin on human T cells or whether other glycoproteins, with or without CLA modification, support E-selectin-dependent rolling in shear flow. To address this issue, we developed a method for real-time analysis of functional adhesive interactions between selectin-bearing cells in shear flow with leukocyte ligands resolved by SDS-PAGE and immobilized on standard Western blots. The results of these studies provide direct evidence that CLA+ PSGL-1 is a functional ligand for both E- and P-selectin, confirm that the P-selectin ligand activity of PSGL-1 is independent of CLA modification, and identify a distinct, non-PSGL-1 E-selectin ligand on CLA-positive human memory T cells.

Galectin-1 (Gal-1)-binding to Gal-1 ligands on immune and endothelial cells can influence melanoma development through dampening antitumor immune responses and promoting angiogenesis. However, whether Gal-1 ligands are functionally expressed on melanoma cells to help control intrinsic malignant features remains poorly understood. Here, we analyzed expression, identity, and function of Gal-1 ligands in melanoma progression. Immunofluorescent analysis of benign and malignant human melanocytic neoplasms revealed that Gal-1 ligands were abundant in severely dysplastic nevi, as well as in primary and metastatic melanomas. Biochemical assessments indicated that melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) was a major Gal-1 ligand on melanoma cells that was largely dependent on its N-glycans. Other melanoma cell Gal-1 ligand activity conferred by O-glycans was negatively regulated by α2,6 sialyltransferase ST6GalNAc2. In Gal-1-deficient mice, MCAM-silenced (MCAM KD ) or ST6GalNAc2-overexpressing (ST6 O/E ) melanoma cells exhibited slower growth rates, underscoring a key role for melanoma cell Gal-1 ligands and host Gal-1 in melanoma growth. Further analysis of MCAM KD or ST6 O/E melanoma cells in cell migration assays indicated that Gal-1 ligand–dependent melanoma cell migration was severely inhibited. These findings provide a refined perspective on Gal-1/melanoma cell Gal-1 ligand interactions as contributors to melanoma malignancy.

Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a protein that impacts the fate and function of immune cells known to fight infection, eliminates cancer, and promotes inflammation, is found in most mammalian tissues at low le...

Laboratory scale to industrial scale purification of biomolecules from cell culture supernatants and lysed cell solutions can be accomplished using affinity chromatography. While affinity chromatography using porous protein A agarose beads packed in columns is arguably the most common method of laboratory scale isolation of antibodies and recombinant proteins expressing Fc fragments of IgG, it can be a time consuming and expensive process. Time and financial constraints are especially daunting in small basic science labs that must recover hundreds of micrograms to milligram quantities of protein from dilute solutions, yet lack access to high pressure liquid delivery systems and/or personnel with expertise in bioseparations. Moreover, product quantification and characterization may also excessively lengthen processing time over several workdays and inflate expenses (consumables, wages, etc.). Therefore, a fast, inexpensive, yet effective protocol is needed for laboratory scale isolation and characterization of antibodies and other proteins possessing an Fc fragment. To this end, we have devised a protocol that can be completed by limited-experience technical staff in less than 9 hr (roughly one workday) and as quickly as 4 hr, as opposed to traditional methods that demand 20+ work hours. Most required equipment is readily available in standard biomedical science, biochemistry, and (bio)chemical engineering labs, and all reagents are commercially available. To demonstrate this protocol, representative results are presented in which chimeric murine galectin-1 fused to human Fc (Gal-1hFc) from cell culture supernatant was isolated using a protein A membrane adsorber. Purified Gal-1hFc was quantified using an expedited Western blotting analysis procedure and characterized using flow cytometry. The streamlined workflow can be modified for other Fc-expressing proteins, such as antibodies, and/or altered to incorporate alternative quantification and characterization methods.

Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a member of an ancient family of animal glycan-binding proteins, has been implicated in a variety of biological events. Interactions between Gal-1 and Gal-1 ligands on T cells are critically involved in regulating the nature and intensity of T-cell-mediated inflammation and antitumor immunity. Appropriately glycosylated T-cell-membrane glycoconjugates operationally defined as Gal-1 ligands bind Gal-1 and elicit downstream cellular activities that dampen effector T-cell function. Together, these biological constituents represent promising targets in the development of novel anti-inflammatory and antitumor immune therapies. Whether through characteristic elevations in tumor-derived Gal-1 or an imbalance in regulatory and Gal-1 ligand+ effector T-cell subsets during inflammation, the Gal-1–Gal-1 ligand-binding axis offers numerous cellular/tissue contexts to strategically interfere with Gal-1 efficacy. In this chapter, we will examine recent assessments of (1) Gal-1 expression and function in controlling both adaptive and antitumor T-cell immunity, (2) identity and function of T-cell Gal-1 ligands, and (3) targeting of the Gal-1–Gal-1 ligand axis to regulate inflammation or boost antitumor immune responses. These research disciplines collectively highlight the importance of understanding the identity and functional nature of Gal-1 and its ligands to strategically and safely manipulate the immune system to control immunopathologic conditions.

E-selectin plays a critical role in mediating tissue-specific homing of T cells into skin, and of primitive hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) into bone marrow (BM). Though it is known that a glycoform of PSGL-1 (CLA) functions as the principal E-selectin ligand on human T lymphocytes, the E-selectin ligand(s) of human HPCs has not been identified. We used a shear-based adherence assay to analyze and define the E-selectin ligand activity of membrane proteins from human HPCs. Our data show that PSGL-1 expressed on human HPCs is an E-selectin ligand, and that HPCs also express a previously unrecognized E-selectin ligand, CD44. The E-selectin ligand activity of CD44 is conferred by the elaboration of sialylated, fucosylated binding determinants on N-glycans. This glycoform of CD44 is expressed on primitive CD34+ human HPCs, but not on more mature hematopoietic cells. Under physiologic flow conditions, this molecule mediates E-selectin–dependent rolling interactions over a wider shear range than that of PSGL-1, and promotes human HPC rolling interactions on E-selectin expressed on human BM endothelial cells. These findings offer new insights into the structural biology and physiology of CD44, and into the molecular basis of E-selectin–dependent adhesive interactions that direct homing of human HPC to BM.

Human hematopoietic progenitor cells express L-selectin and also express PSGL-1, a ligand for all selectins. Using a shear-based adhesion assay, a hematopoietic cell L-selectin ligand (HCLL) that is expressed on the hematopoietic cell line KG1a and on normal human hematopoietic progenitors was previously identified. To characterize the structural biology of HCLL and to define its relationship to PSGL-1, the effects of chemical and enzymatic treatments on HCLL activity of KG1a cells and membrane preparations were analyzed. Protease digestions and chemical treatments of KG1a cells and membranes indicated that HCLL is an integral membrane glycoprotein. Glycosidase digestions of membrane protein preparations and metabolic treatments of KG1a cells with glycosylation processing modifiers revealed that L-selectin binding determinants on HCLL are sialofucosylated structures presented on complex-type N-glycans. Adhesion assays and biochemical studies showed that this glycoprotein is also expressed on circulating blasts in native acute leukemias. HCLL is distinguishable from PSGL-1: (1) KG1a cells sorted for PSGL-1 expression had equivalent HCLL activity; (2) anti–PSGL-1 blocking antibodies and proteases known to eliminate L-selectin binding to PSGL-1 had no effect on HCLL binding activity of KG1a cells; (3) blasts from native leukemias with low expression of PSGL-1 and CD34 display high HCLL activity; and (4) despite high level expression of PSGL-1, HCLL activity was absent on HL60 cells. These data provide first evidence of a naturally expressed membrane L-selectin ligand expressing binding determinant(s) on an N-linked glycoconjugate. This novel ligand may help mediate L-selectin–dependent cell-cell adhesive interactions within the cytoarchitecture of the bone marrow microenvironment.

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from an existing vasculature, is requisite for tumor growth. It entails intercellular coordination of endothelial and tumor cells through angiogenic growth factor signaling. Interruption of these events has implications in the suppression of tumor growth. PD166285, a broad-spectrum receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitor, and PD173074, a selective FGFR1TK inhibitor, were evaluated for their anti-angiogenic activity and anti-tumor efficacy in combination with photodynamic therapy (PDT). To evaluate the anti-angiogenic and anti-tumor activities of these compounds, RTK assays, in vitro tumor cell growth and microcapillary formation assays, in vivo murine angiogenesis and anti-tumor efficacy studies utilizing RTK inhibitors in combination with photodynamic therapy were performed. PD166285 inhibited PDGFR-beta-, EGFR-, and FGFR1TKs and c-src TK by 50% (IC50) at concentrations between 7-85 nM. PD173074 displayed selective inhibitory activity towards FGFR1TK at 26 nM. PD173074 demonstrated (>100 fold) selective growth inhibitory action towards human umbilical vein endothelial cells compared with a panel of tumor cell lines. Both PD166285 and PD173074 (at 10 nM) inhibited the formation of microcapillaries on Matrigel-coated plastic. In vivo anti-angiogenesis studies in mice revealed that oral administration (p.o.) of either PD166285 (1-25 mg/kg) or PD173074 (25-100 mg/kg) generated dose dependent inhibition of angiogenesis. Against a murine mammary 16c tumor, significantly prolonged tumor regressions were achieved with daily p.o. doses of PD166285 (5-10 mg/kg) or PD173074 (30-60 mg/kg) following PDT compared with PDT alone (p