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PURPOSE The proton resonance frequency (PRF)-based thermometry uses heating-induced phase variations to reconstruct magnetic resonance (MR) temperature maps. However, the measurements of the phase differences may be corrupted by the presence of fat due to its phase being insensitive to heat. The work aims to reconstruct the PRF-based temperature maps for tissues containing fat. METHODS This work proposes a PRF-based method that eliminates the fat's phase contribution by estimating the temperature-insensitive fat vector. A vector in a complex domain represents a given voxel's magnetization from an acquired, complex MR image. In this method, a circle was fit to a time series of vectors acquired from a heated region during a heating experiment. The circle center served as the fat vector, which was then subtracted from the acquired vectors, leaving only the temperature-sensitive vectors for thermal mapping. This work was verified with the gel phantoms of 10%, 15%, and 20% fat content and the ex vivo phantom of porcine abdomen tissue during water-bath heating. It was also tested with an ex vivo porcine tissue during focused ultrasound (FUS) heating. RESULTS A good agreement was found between the temperature measurements obtained from the proposed method and the optical fiber temperature probe in the verification experiments. In the gel phantoms, the linear regression provided a slope of 0.992 and an R2 of 0.994. The Bland-Altman analysis gave a bias of 0.49°C and a 95% confidence interval of ±1.60°C. In the ex vivo tissue, the results of the linear regression and Bland-Altman methods provided a slope of 0.979, an intercept of 0.353, an R2 of 0.947, and a 95% confidence interval of ±3.26°C with a bias of -0.14°C. In FUS tests, a temperature discrepancy of up to 28% was observed between the proposed and conventional PRF methods in ex vivo tissues containing fat. CONCLUSIONS The proposed PRF-based method can improve the accuracy of the temperature measurements in tissues with fat, such as breast, abdomen, prostate, and bone marrow.

Purpose Proton resonance frequency (PRF) thermometry encodes information in the phase of MRI signals. A multiplicative factor converts phase changes into temperature changes, and this factor includes the TE. However, phase variations caused by B0 and/or B1 inhomogeneities can effectively change TE in ways that vary from pixel to pixel. This work presents how spatial phase variations affect temperature maps and how to correct for corresponding errors. Methods A method called "k-space energy spectrum analysis" was used to map regions in the object domain to regions in the k-space domain. Focused ultrasound heating experiments were performed in tissue-mimicking gel phantoms under two scenarios: with and without proper shimming. The second scenario, with deliberately de-adjusted shimming, was meant to emulate B0 inhomogeneities in a controlled manner. The TE errors were mapped and compensated for using k-space energy spectrum analysis, and corrected results were compared with reference results. Furthermore, a volunteer was recruited to help evaluate the magnitude of the errors being corrected. Results The in vivo abdominal results showed that the TE and heating errors being corrected can readily exceed 10%. In phantom results, a linear regression between reference and corrected temperatures results provided a slope of 0.971 and R2 of 0.9964. Analysis based on the Bland-Altman method provided a bias of -0.0977°C and 95% limits of agreement that were 0.75°C apart. Conclusion Spatially varying TE errors, such as caused by B0 and/or B1 inhomogeneities, can be detected and corrected using the k-space energy spectrum analysis method, for increased accuracy in proton resonance frequency thermometry.

Purpose To combine MRI, ultrasound, and computer science methodologies toward generating MRI contrast at the high frame rates of ultrasound, inside and even outside the MRI bore. Methods A small transducer, held onto the abdomen with an adhesive bandage, collected ultrasound signals during MRI. Based on these ultrasound signals and their correlations with MRI, a machine-learning algorithm created synthetic MR images at frame rates up to 100 per second. In one particular implementation, volunteers were taken out of the MRI bore with the ultrasound sensor still in place, and MR images were generated on the basis of ultrasound signal and learned correlations alone in a “scannerless” manner. Results Hybrid ultrasound-MRI data were acquired in eight separate imaging sessions. Locations of liver features, in synthetic images, were compared with those from acquired images: The mean error was 1.0 pixel (2.1 mm), with best case 0.4 and worst case 4.1 pixels (in the presence of heavy coughing). For results from outside the bore, qualitative validation involved optically tracked ultrasound imaging with/without coughing. Conclusion The proposed setup can generate an accurate stream of high-speed MR images, up to 100 frames per second, inside or even outside the MR bore. Magn Reson Med, 2016. © 2016 International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine.

Purpose: To present a dual-pathway multi-echo steady state sequence and reconstruction algorithm to capture T 2 , T 2 ∗ and field map information. Methods: Typically, pulse sequences based on spin echoes are needed for T 2 mapping while gradient echoes are needed for field mapping, making it difficult to jointly acquire both types of information. A dual-pathway multi-echo pulse sequence is employed here to generate T 2 and field maps from the same acquired data. The approach might be used, for example, to obtain both thermometry and tissue damage information during thermal therapies, or susceptibility and T 2 information from a same head scan, or to generate bonus T 2 maps during a knee scan. Results: Quantitative T 2 , T 2 ∗ and field maps were generated in gel phantoms, ex vivo bovine muscle, and twelve volunteers. T 2 results were validated against a spin-echo reference standard: A linear regression based on ROI analysis in phantoms provided close agreement (slope/ R 2 = 0.99/0.998). A pixel-wise in vivo Bland–Altman analysis of R 2 = 1/ T 2 showed a bias of 0.034 Hz (about 0.3%), as averaged over four volunteers. Ex vivo results, with and without motion, suggested that tissue damage detection based on T 2 rather than temperature-dose measurements might prove more robust to motion. Conclusion: T 2 , T 2 ∗ and field maps were obtained simultaneously, from the same datasets, in thermometry, susceptibility-weighted imaging and knee-imaging contexts.

Purpose Dual-pathway sequences have been proposed to help improve the temperature-to-noise ratio (TNR) in MR thermometry. The present work establishes how much of an improvement these so-called "PSIF-FISP" sequences may bring in various organs and tissues. Methods Simulations and TNR calculations were validated against analytical equations, phantom, abdomen, and brain scans. Relative TNRs for PSIF-FISP, as compared to a dual-FISP reference standard, were calculated for flip angle (FA) = 1 to 85 o and repetition time (TR) = 6 to 60 ms, for gray matter, white matter, cervix, endometrium, myometrium, prostate, kidney medulla and cortex, bone marrow, pancreas, spleen, muscle, and liver tissues. Results PSIF-FISP was TNR superior in the kidney, pelvis, spleen, or gray matter at most tested TR and FA settings, and benefits increased at shorter TRs. PSIF-FISP was TNR superior in other tissues, e.g., liver, muscle, pancreas, for only short TR settings (20 ms or less). The TNR benefits of PSIF-FISP increased slightly with FA, and strongly with decreasing TR. Up to two- to three-fold reductions in TR with 20% TNR gains were achievable. In any given tissue, TNR performance is expected to further improve with heating, due to changes in relaxation rates. Conclusion Dual-pathway PSIF-FISP can improve TNR and acquisition speed over standard gradient-recalled echo sequences, but optimal acquisition parameters are tissue dependent. Magn Reson Med 77:1193-1200, 2017. © 2016 International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine.

Purpose To describe how B0 inhomogeneities can cause errors in proton resonance frequency (PRF) shift thermometry, and to correct for these errors. Methods With PRF thermometry, measured phase shifts are converted into temperature measurements through the use of a scaling factor proportional to the echo time, TE. However, B0 inhomogeneities can deform, spread, and translate MR echoes, potentially making the “true” echo time vary spatially within the imaged object and take on values that differ from the prescribed TE value. Acquisition and reconstruction methods able to avoid or correct for such errors are presented. Results Tests were performed in a gel phantom during sonication, and temperature measurements were made with proper shimming as well as with intentionally introduced B0 inhomogeneities. Errors caused by B0 inhomogeneities were observed, described, and corrected by the proposed methods. No statistical difference was found between the corrected results and the reference results obtained with proper shimming, while errors by more than 10% in temperature elevation were corrected for. The approach was also applied to an abdominal in vivo dataset. Conclusion Field variations induce errors in measured field values, which can be detected and corrected. The approach was validated for a PRF thermometry application. Magn Reson Med 73:2142–2151, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Magnetic resonance-guided high intensity focused ultrasound (MRgHIFU) is being explored as a non-invasive technology to treat solid tumors. However, the clinical use of HIFU for tumor ablation applications is currently limited by the long treatment times required. Phase-shift nanoemulsions (PSNE), consisting of liquid perfluorocarbon droplets that can be vaporized into microbubbles, are being developed to accelerate HIFU-mediated heating. The purpose of this study was to examine accumulation of PSNE in intramuscular rabbit tumors in vivo. MR images were acquired before and after intravenous injection of gadolinium-containing PSNE. MR signal enhancement was observed in rabbit tumors up to six hours after injection, indicating that PSNE accumulated in the tumors. In addition, PSNE vaporization was detected in the tumor with B-mode ultrasound imaging, and MR thermometry measurements indicated that PSNE accelerated the rate of HIFU-mediated heating. These results suggest that PSNE could dramatically improve the efficiency and clinical feasibility of MRgHIFU.

To develop an ultrafast MRI-based temperature monitoring method for application during rapid ultrasound exposures in moving organs.A slice selective 90° - 180° pair of RF pulses was used to solicit an echo from a column, which was then sampled with a train of gradient echoes. In a gel phantom, phase changes of each echo were compared to standard gradient-echo thermometry, and temperature monitoring was tested during focused ultrasound sonications. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) performance was evaluated in vivo in a rabbit brain, and feasibility was tested in a human heart.The correlation between each echo in the acquisition and MRI-based temperature measurements was good (R = 0.98 ± 0.03). A temperature sampling rate of 19 Hz was achieved at 3T in the gel phantom. It was possible to acquire the water frequency in the beating heart muscle with 5-Hz sampling rate during a breath hold.Ultrafast thermometry via phase or frequency monitoring along single columns was demonstrated. With a temporal resolution around 50 ms, it may be possible to monitor focal heating produced by short ultrasound pulses.

The purpose of this study is to develop a fast and accurate temperature mapping method capable of both fat suppression and reduced field-of-view (rFOV) imaging, using a two-dimensional spatially-selective RF (2DRF) pulse. Temperature measurement errors caused by fat signals were assessed, through simulations. An 11×1140μs echo-planar 2DRF pulse was developed and incorporated into a gradient-echo sequence. Temperature measurements were obtained during focused ultrasound (FUS) heating of a fat-water phantom. Experiments both with and without the use of a 2DRF pulse were performed at 3T, and the accuracy of the resulting temperature measurements were compared over a range of TE values. Significant inconsistencies in terms of measured temperature values were observed when using a regular slice-selective RF excitation pulse. In contrast, the proposed 2DRF excitation pulse suppressed fat signals by more than 90%, allowing good temperature consistency regardless of TE settings. Temporal resolution was also improved, from 12 frames per minute (fpm) with the regular pulse to 28 frames per minute with the rFOV excitation. This technique appears promising toward the MR monitoring of temperature in moving adipose organs, during thermal therapies.

MR-based thermometry is a valuable adjunct to thermal ablation therapies as it helps to determine when lethal doses are reached at the target and whether surrounding tissues are safe from damage. When the targeted lesion is mobile, MR data can further be used for motion-tracking purposes. The present work introduces pulse sequence modifications that enable significant improvements both in terms of temperature-to-noise-ratio (TNR) properties and target-tracking abilities. Instead of sampling a single magnetization pathway as in typical MR thermometry sequences, the pulse-sequence design introduced here involves sampling at least one additional pathway. Image reconstruction changes associated with the proposed sampling scheme are also described. The method was implemented on two commonly used MR thermometry sequences: the gradient-echo and the interleaved echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequences. Data from the extra pathway enabled TNR improvements by up to 35%, without increasing scan time. Potentially of greater significance is that the sampled pathways featured very different contrast for blood vessels, facilitating their detection and use as internal landmarks for tracking purposes. Through improved TNR and lesiontracking abilities, the proposed pulse-sequence design may facilitate the use of MR-monitored thermal ablations as an effective treatment option even in mobile organs such as the liver and kidneys.

MR thermometry can be a very challenging application, as good resolution may be needed along spatial, temporal, and temperature axes. Given that the heated foci produced during thermal therapies are typically much smaller than the anatomy being imaged, much of the imaged field-of-view is not actually being heated and may not require temperature monitoring. In this work, many-fold improvements were obtained in terms of temporal resolution and/or 3D spatial coverage by sacrificing some of the in-plane spatial coverage. To do so, three fast-imaging approaches were jointly implemented with a spoiled gradient echo sequence: (1) two-dimensional spatially selective RF excitation, (2) unaliasing by Fourier encoding the overlaps using the temporal dimension (UNFOLD), and (3) parallel imaging. The sequence was tested during experiments with focused ultrasound heating in ex vivo tissue and a tissue-mimicking phantom. Temperature maps were estimated from phase-difference images based on the water proton resonance frequency shift. Results were compared to those obtained from a spoiled gradient echo sequence sequence, using a t-test. Temporal resolution was increased by 24-fold, with temperature uncertainty less than 1°C, while maintaining accurate temperature measurements (mean difference between measurements, as observed in gel = 0.1°C ± 0.6; R = 0.98; P > 0.05).

Transcranial MR-guided focused ultrasound (TcMRgFUS) provides a potential noninvasive alternative to surgical resection and for other treatments for brain disorders. Use of low-frequency ultrasound provides several advantages for TcMRgFUS, but is potentially limited by reflection and standing wave effects that may cause secondary hotspots within the skull cavity. The purpose of this work was to use volumetric magnetic resonance temperature imaging (MRTI) and ex vivo human skulls filled with tissue-mimicking phantom material to search for heating distant from the focal point that may occur during sonication with a TcMRgFUS system as a result of reflections or standing wave effects. Heating during 120-s sonications was monitored within the entire skull volume for 12 different locations in two different skulls. The setup used a hemispheric array operating at 220 kHz. Multiple sonications were delivered at each location while varying the MRTI slice positions to provide full coverage of the skull cavity. An automated routine was used evaluate the MRTI to detect voxel regions that appeared to be heated by ultrasound. No secondary hotspots with a temperature rise of 15% or more of the focal heating were found. The MRTI noise level prevented the identification of possible hotspots with a lower temperature rise. These results suggest that significant secondary heating by this TcMRgFUS system at points distant from the focal point are not common.

To describe how B0 inhomogeneities can cause errors in proton resonance frequency (PRF) shift thermometry, and to correct for these errors.With PRF thermometry, measured phase shifts are converted into temperature measurements through the use of a scaling factor proportional to the echo time, TE. However, B0 inhomogeneities can deform, spread, and translate MR echoes, potentially making the "true" echo time vary spatially within the imaged object and take on values that differ from the prescribed TE value. Acquisition and reconstruction methods able to avoid or correct for such errors are presented.Tests were performed in a gel phantom during sonication, and temperature measurements were made with proper shimming as well as with intentionally introduced B0 inhomogeneities. Errors caused by B0 inhomogeneities were observed, described, and corrected by the proposed methods. No statistical difference was found between the corrected results and the reference results obtained with proper shimming, while errors by more than 10% in temperature elevation were corrected for. The approach was also applied to an abdominal in vivo dataset.Field variations induce errors in measured field values, which can be detected and corrected. The approach was validated for a PRF thermometry application.

The capability to image temperature is a very attractive feature of MRI and has been actively exploited for guiding minimally-invasive thermal therapies. Among many MR-based temperature-sensitive approaches, proton resonance frequency (PRF) thermometry provides the advantage of excellent linearity of signal with temperature over a large temperature range. Furthermore, the PRF shift has been shown to be fairly independent of tissue type and thermal history. For these reasons, PRF method has evolved into the most widely used MR-based thermometry method. In the present paper, the basic principles of PRF-based temperature mapping will be reviewed, along with associated pulse sequence designs. Technical advancements aimed at increasing the imaging speed and/or temperature accuracy of PRF-based thermometry sequences, such as image acceleration, fat suppression, reduced field-of-view imaging, as well as motion tracking and correction, will be discussed. The development of accurate MR thermometry methods applicable to moving organs with non-negligible fat content represents a very challenging goal, but recent developments suggest that this goal may be achieved. If so, MR-guided thermal therapies may be expected to play an increasingly-important therapeutic and palliative role, as a minimally-invasive alternative to surgery.

MR thermometry can be a very challenging application, as good resolution may be needed along spatial, temporal, and temperature axes. Given that the heated foci produced during thermal therapies are typically much smaller than the anatomy being imaged, much of the imaged field-of-view is not actually being heated and may not require temperature monitoring. In this work, many-fold improvements were obtained in terms of temporal resolution and/or 3D spatial coverage by sacrificing some of the in-plane spatial coverage. To do so, three fast-imaging approaches were jointly implemented with a spoiled gradient echo sequence: (1) two-dimensional spatially selective RF excitation, (2) unaliasing by Fourier encoding the overlaps using the temporal dimension (UNFOLD), and (3) parallel imaging. The sequence was tested during experiments with focused ultrasound heating in ex vivo tissue and a tissue-mimicking phantom. Temperature maps were estimated from phase-difference images based on the water proton resonance frequency shift. Results were compared to those obtained from a spoiled gradient echo sequence sequence, using a t-test. Temporal resolution was increased by 24-fold, with temperature uncertainty less than 1°C, while maintaining accurate temperature measurements (mean difference between measurements, as observed in gel = 0.1°C ± 0.6; R = 0.98; P0.05).