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In a volcanic region, unstable conditions of the surface geology result in natural hazards such as landslides. The present study aims to examine the properties of the formation near the surface in the Tatun Volcano Group (TVG), Northern Taiwan. Dense Very Low Frequency magnetotelluric (VLF-MT) surveys were conducted to obtain the near-surface resistivity. A geostatistical approach and stochastic simula­tion were used to examine the continuity of the data, and to render the spatial distri­bution of the resistivity. The results show that the estimated range is consistent with the length scale of the geological features such as the hydrothermal phenomena and volcanic edifices. The estimated distribution of the resistivity successfully identified a fresh lava (≥ 1000 Ωm), a lineament-bearing, weathered lava (≤ a few hundred Ωm), and hydrothermal areas (≤ 30 Ωm). On the basis of the present study, we expect further detailed geophysical investigations will be performed from the viewpoint of hazard mitigation in the TVG.

Voluminous mafic dacitic to rhyodacitic ignimbrite fields linked to giant calderas are distinctive features of the late Miocene to Quaternary magmatic record of the central Andean Altiplano–Puna plateau. The magmas erupted through a compressionally thickened crust over a generally shallow, but variably dipping subducting Nazca plate. New analyses including whole rock major and trace element concentrations (~ 175), 143Nd/144Nd (22) and 87Sr/86Sr (23) ratios and δ18O analyses on quartz phenocrysts (18) coupled with data from the literature provide a regional and temporal perspective on the chemical variability of Puna ignimbrites between 22°S and 27°S latitude. Ranges of Pb, Sr, Nd and δ18O isotopes, variability in Al/(K + Na + Ca), Na/K and trace element ratios, chemical parallels with Paleozoic magmatic rocks and published experimental constraints link crustal contributions in the ignimbrites to a more pelitic crust in the northern Puna, a more igneous gneiss-like crust in the southern Puna and a more amphibolite-like crust near the arc. Melting in the deep crust by injection of mantle-derived melts followed by magma rise, accumulation and evolution at depths near 25–20 km is supported by heavy REE evidence for deep crustal garnet-bearing residues, negative Eu anomalies superimposed on steep REE patterns, calculated bulk Sr distribution coefficients and Puna seismic images. Temporal trends towards less evolved isotopic ratios, metaluminous compositions, flatter REE patterns and less HFSE depletion in northern Puna ignimbrites suggest an evolving crustal magma source as mafic melts continued to enter the crust. Assimilation-fractional crystallization models for Sr and modeling of δ18O data are consistent with the large ignimbrites (> 500 km3 DRE) forming as near 50–50 hybrids of enriched mantle-wedge derived (87Sr/86Sr ~ 0.7055; 143Nd/144Nd ~ 0.5126) basaltic melts and spatially variable lower to mid-crustal melts with 87Sr/86Sr ratios from 0.715 to 0.745 at 300 to 125 ppm Sr and δ18O from ~ + 12‰ to ~ + 15‰. Given a 1:1 mantle to crustal ratio, a 3:1 to 5:1 plutonic/volcanic ratio and an ignimbrite volume near 11,000 km3, the mantle magma production rate to produce the ignimbrites is a distinctly non-flare-up-like rate of less than 20 km3/km/Ma when averaged across the Puna over 7 Ma.

article i nfo Taipei City, with a population of around 8 million, as well as two nuclear power plants is located in close proximity to the Quaternary, dominantly andesitic Tatun Volcanic Group (TVG) of Northern Taiwan. We have investigated the stratigraphy of the youngest volcaniclastic deposits, as well as the morphology of lava flows and domes of the TVG in order to reconstruct the character and timing of the most recent eruptions and related hazardous events in the area. Our data indicate that recent eruptions of the group were dominated by long-term, voluminous extrusions of crystal-rich, very viscous lavas. These eruptions formed closely spaced monogenetic domes and lava flows. Based on morphological parameters of the lava flows (thicknesses 80-150 m, lengths up to 5.6 km, and volumes up to 0.6 km 3

The Kamchatka Peninsula in far eastern Russia represents the most volcanically active arc in the world in terms of magma production and the number of explosive eruptions. We investigate large-scale silicic volcanism in the past several million years and present new geochronologic results from major ignimbrite sheets exposed in Kamchatka. These ignimbrites are found in the vicinity of morphologically-preserved rims of partially eroded source calderas with diameters from ∼ 2 to ∼ 30 km and with estimated volumes of eruptions ranging from 10 to several hundred cubic kilometers of magma. We also identify and date two of the largest ignimbrites: Golygin Ignimbrite in southern Kamchatka (0.45 Ma), and Karymshina River Ignimbrites (1.78 Ma) in south-central Kamchatka. We present whole-rock geochemical analyses that can be used to correlate ignimbrites laterally. These large-volume ignimbrites sample a significant proportion of remelted Kamchatkan crust as constrained by the oxygen isotopes. Oxygen isotope analyses of minerals and matrix span a 3‰ range with a significant proportion of moderately low-δ18O values. This suggests that the source for these ignimbrites involved a hydrothermally-altered shallow crust, while participation of the Cretaceous siliceous basement is also evidenced by moderately elevated δ18O and Sr isotopes and xenocryst contamination in two volcanoes. The majority of dates obtained for caldera-forming eruptions coincide with glacial stages in accordance with the sediment record in the NW Pacific, suggesting an increase in explosive volcanic activity since the onset of the last glaciation 2.6 Ma. Rapid changes in ice volume during glacial times and the resulting fluctuation of glacial loading/unloading could have caused volatile saturation in shallow magma chambers and, in combination with availability of low-δ18O glacial meltwaters, increased the proportion of explosive vs effusive eruptions. The presented results provide new constraints on Pliocene–Pleistocene volcanic activity in Kamchatka, and thus constrain an important component of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

The largest known eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the late Quaternary was the Inararo Tuff Formation (ITF) eruption, roughly estimated as five times larger than the 1991 eruption. The precise age of the ITF eruption has been uncertain. Here, a correlative of the ITF eruption, Layer D, is identified in marine sediments, and an age obtained. Tephras were identified in core MD97-2142 of Leg II of the IMAGES III cruise in northern offshore of Palawan, southeastern South China Sea (12°41.33′N, 119°27.90′E). On the basis of the geochemical and isotopic fingerprints, Layer D can be correlated with the ITF eruption of the modern Pinatubo-eruption sequence. By means of the MD97-2142 SPECMAP chronology, Layer D was dated at around 81±2 ka. This estimated age of the ITF eruption and tephra Layer D coincides with an anomalously high SO4−2 spike occurring within the 5 millennia from 79 to 84 ka in the GISP2 ice core record.

Taiwan is an active mountain belt created by the oblique collision of the northern Luzon arc with Asia. Late Pliocene extensional collapse of the northern Taiwan mountain belt (NTMB) was accompanied by magmatism that formed the Northern Taiwan Volcanic Zone (NTVZ; 2 8---0 2Ma). The geochemical characteristics of the NTVZ magmas can thus provide constraints both for the mantle source composition and the geodynamic processes operating in the late orogenic stage of the region. The NTVZ volcanic rocks consist dominantly of calc-alkaline andesites and basalts, along with subordinate but heterogeneous lavas including low-K, shoshonitic and ultrapotassic magmas. From the NE to the SW in the NTVZ, the magmas show systematic compositional variations from low-K to calc-alkaline and then shoshonitic. This spatial geochemical variation, characterized by southwesterly increase in potassium and incompatible trace elements, appears to be subparallel to the southwestern part of the modern Ryukyu subduction system. Sr---Nd isotope ratios of the NTVZ volcanic rocks ( Sr/Sr 0 70376---0 70551; Nd/Nd 0 51259---0 51301) suggest that two mantle source components are involved in the magma generation, the asthenosphere and metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle. These two components are represented by the 2 6MaMienhuayu high-Mg basaltic andesites and the 0 2Ma Tsaolingshan high-Mg potassic lavas, respectively. The latter are interpreted to be the products of small-degree melting of a phlogopitebearing, harzburgite lithospheric mantle source metasomatized recently by the nearby Ryukyu subduction zone processes. The Sr---Nd---Pb isotope systematics and specific trace-element ratios of the NTVZ volcanic rocks suggest that melts derived from subducted sediments and fluids released from slab dehydration reactions were both involved in metasomatizing this mantle source. The unique spatial geochemical variation of the NTVZ volcanic rocks can be successfully modelled using variable degrees of partial melting of the mantle source regions, coupled with mixing of different melt components from depleted asthenospheric and metasomatized lithospheric mantle components beneath individual volcanic fields. It is inferred that mixing of melts from specific mantle components and the degree of partial melting are spatially and temporally related to the tectonic evolution of the northern Taiwan region, and not simply due directly to subduction zone processes. The overall NTVZ geochemical characteristics can be explained by various degrees of melting within an ascending region of the asthenospheric mantle, triggered by extensional collapse of the NTMB, and interaction of these melts with overlying fluidand sediment-modified lithospheric mantle. JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 45 NUMBER 5 PAGES 975–1011 2004 DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egh001

The Mesozoic geology of SE China is characterized by intensive and widespread magmatism. However, the tectonic regime that accounted for the Mesozoic magmatism has been an issue with little consensus. A comprehensive study of Ar-40 -Ar-39 dating, geochemistry and Sr-Nd isotopes has been conducted on basalts from southern Hunan and syenite intrusions from eastern Guangxi. Three episodes of Jurassic magmatism, i.e. alkaline basalts of c. 175 Ma in age, syenitic intrusions of c. 160 Ma and high-Mg basalts of c. 150 Ma, are identified. The older, c. 175 Ma alkaline basalts are characterized by low Sr (I-Sr = 0.7035-0.7040) and high Nd (epsilon(Nd)(T) = 5 to 6) isotopic compositions and OIB-like trace-element patterns (e.g. Nb/La > 1). In contrast, the younger, c. 150 Ma high-Mg basalts have high Sr (I-Sr c. 0.7054) and low Nd (epsilon(Nd)(T) c. -2) isotopic compositions and incompatible trace-element patterns of arc affinity. The c. 160 Ma syenitic intrusions display a relatively large range of Sr and Nd isotopic compositions (I-Sr = 0.7032-0.7082, epsilon(Nd)(T) = 5.5 to -4.1), with the Qinghu syenites having the lowest I-Sr, highest epsilon(Nd)(T) and OIB-type incompatible trace-element patterns analogous to the c. 175 Ma alkaline basalts. Such a secular variation in rock types and geochemical and isotopic characteristics reveals changes in melt segregation depth and mantle sources, which are inferred to have resulted from the post-Indosinian orogenic lithosphere extension and thinning. The c. 175 Ma alkaline basalts are suggested to have formed by small degrees of decompression melting of the astheno-sphere or an enriched lithospheric mantle source accreted by asthenosphere-derived melts during the initial extension. The c. 160 Ma syenitic and c. 150 Ma high-Mg basaltic rocks mainly originated from the enriched lithospheric mantle that melted owing to a raised geotherm caused by lithosphere thinning. This interpretation is at odds with the active continental margin related to the subduction of palaeo-Pacific plate, but consistent with continental rifting and extension for the Mesozoic of SE China.

Two very rare pumice-rich layers were recently found at two sites in Taiwan, more precisely in the lowermost marine terrace of the Sanhsientai area on the southeast coast, and in that of the Yenliao area, on the northeast coast. The pumice-rich layer in the former is about 15 cm in thickness and is composed of 60–70% gray to dark gray, subangular to angular pumice fragments with barnacle shell fragments. The layer in the latter, on the other hand, is about 10 cm in thickness and is composed of 40–50% light gray to gray, subrounded to subangular pumice fragments with a few carbonized wood fragments. Despite their different occurrences, both pumice fragments very closely resemble each other in terms of major and trace as well as isotopic compositions and, therefore, may be considered to have come from the same source, the Luzon or Philippine arcs. 14 C-dating gives the layers an equal age ranging from around 420 to 402 cal. yr BP. Based on the age and altitude of the marine terraces in the Sanhsientai and Yenliao areas, however, the uplift rates are 10.9 and 5.4 mm/yr, respectively. The results strongly indicate that, firstly, the uplift rates may have accelerated in the last thousands of years during the Holocene in the Sanhsientai–Chengkung area and that, secondly, the northern coastal area of Taiwan likely suffered from a spasmodic uplift in the very latest Holocene.

The Northern Taiwan Volcanic Zone (NTVZ) is a Late Pliocene–Quaternary volcanic field that occurred as a result of extensional collapse of the northern Taiwan mountain belt. We report here mineral compositions, major and trace element and Sr/Nd isotope data of high-Mg basaltic andesites from the Mienhuayu, a volcanic islet formed at ∼2.6 Ma in the central part of the NTVZ. The rocks are hypocrystalline, showing porphyritic texture with Mg-rich olivine (Fo≈81–80), bronzite (En≈82–79) and plagioclase (An≈66–58) as major phenocryst phases. They have uniform whole-rock compositions, marked by high magnesium (MgO≈5.9–8.1 wt.%, Mg value≈0.6) relative to accompanying silica contents (SiO2≈52.8–54.5 wt.%). The high-Mg basaltic andesites contain the highest TiO2(∼1.5 wt.%) and lowest K2O (∼0.4 wt.%) among the NTVZ volcanic rocks. In the incompatible element variation diagram, these Mienhuayu magmas exhibit mild enrichments in large ion lithophile (LILE) and light rare earth elements (LREE), coupled with an apparent Pb-positive spike. They do not display depletions in high field strength elements (HFSE), a feature observed universally in the other NTVZ volcanics. The high-Mg basaltic andesites have rather unradiogenic Nd (eNd≈+5.1–7.2) but apparently elevated Sr (87Sr/86Sr≈0.70435–0.70543; leached values) isotope ratios. Their overall geochemical and isotopic characteristics are similar to mid-Miocene (∼13 Ma) high-Mg andesites from the Iriomote-jima, southern Ryukyus, Japan. Despite these magmas have lower LILE and LREE enrichments and Pb positive spike, their “intraplate-type” incompatible element variation patterns are comparable to those of extension-induced Miocene intraplate basalts emplaced in the Taiwan–Fujian region. Therefore, we interpret the Mienhuayu magmas as silica-saturated melts derived from decompression melting of the ascended asthenosphere that had been subtly affected by the adjacent Ryukyu subduction zone processes. This interpretation is consistent with the notion that in the northern Taiwan mountain belt post-orogenic lithospheric extension started in Plio–Pleistocene time.

The present study proposes an improved conceptual model for the hydrothermal system in the Tatun Volcano Group in northern Taiwan. In the study, audio-magnetotellurics (AMT) surveys were conducted to reveal the spatial distribution of resistivity, which is highly sensitive to fluids and hydrothermal alteration. By combining the obtained resistivity structure with other geophysical and geochemical evidence, the following hydrothermal system was inferred. Beneath Chishinshan, vapor-dominant hydrothermal fluids, supplied from a deeper part, are maintained in a low to relatively low resistivity region (5 to 20 Ω m) that is covered by a clay-rich cap, represented by an upper extremely low resistivity layer. Fluid ascent is suggested by a pressure source and clustered seismicity. Exsolved gases result in fumarolic areas, such as Siao-you-keng, while mixing of gases with shallow groundwater forms a shallow flow system of hydrothermal fluids in the Matsao area, represented by a region of less than 10 Ω m. The fumarole in the Da-you-keng area originates from vapor-dominant hydrothermal fluids that may be supplied from a deeper part beneath Cing-tian-gang, suggested by a pressure source and low to relatively low resistivity. Horizontally extended vapor-bearing regions also suggest the possibility of future phreatic eruptions. The proposed conceptual model may provide clues to detecting precursors of potential volcanic activity.

Taiwan is an active mountain belt formed by oblique collision between the Luzon are and the Asian continent. Regardless of the ongoing collision in central and southern Taiwan, a post-collisional extension regime has developed since the Plio-Pleistocene in the northern part of this orogen, and led to generation of the Northern Taiwan Volcanic Zone. Emplaced at similar to0.2 Ma in the southwest of the Volcanic Zone, lavas from the Tsaolingshan volcano are highly magnesian (MgO approximate to 15 wt.%) and potassic (K2O approximate to 5 wt.%, K2O/Na2O approximate to 1.6-3.0). Whereas these basic rocks (SiO2 approximate to 48 wt.%) have relatively low Al2O3 approximate to 12 wt.%, total Fe2O3 approximate to 7.5 wt.% and CaO approximate to 7.2 wt.%, they are extremely enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILE, e.g. Cs, Rb, Ba, Th and U). The Rb and Cs abundances, > 1000 and 120 ppm, respectively, are among the highest known from terrestrial rocks. In addition, these rocks are enriched in light rare earth elements (LREE), depleted in high Field strength elements (HFSE), and display a positive Pb spike in the primitive mantle-normalized variation diagram. Their REE distribution patterns mark with slight Eu negative anomalies (Eu/Eu * approximate to 0.90 - 0.84), and Sr and Nd isotope ratios are uniform (Sr-87/Sr-86 approximate to 0.70540-0.70551; Nd-143/(144) Nd approximate to 0.51268-0.51259). Olivine, the major phenocryst phase, shows high Fo contents (90.4 +/- 1.8; 1 sigma deviation), which are in agreement with the whole rock Mg-values (83 - 80). Spinel inclusions in olivine are characterized by high Cr/Cr+Al ratios (0.94-0.82) and have compositions similar to those from boninites that originate from highly refractory peridotites. Such petrochemical characteristics are comparable to the Group I ultrapotassic rocks defined by Foley et al. [Earth-Sci. Rev. 24 (1987) 81], such as orogenic lamproites from central Italy, Span and Tibet, We therefore suggest that the Tsaolingshan lavas resulted from a phlogopite-bearing harzburgitic source in the lithospheric mantle that underwent a recent metasomatism by the nearby Ryukyu subduction zone processes. The lavas exhibit unique incompatible trace element ratios, with Rb/Cs approximate to 8, Ba/Rb approximate to 1, Ce/Pb approximate to 2, Th/U approximate to 1 and Nb/ U approximate to 0.8, which are significantly lower than the continental crust values and those of most mantle-derived magmas. Nonmagmatic enrichment in the mantle source is therefore required. Based on published experimental data, two subduction-related metasomatic components, i.e., slab-released hydrous fluid and subducted sediment, are proposed, and the former is considered to be more pervasive for causing the extraordinary trace element ratios observed. Our observations lend support to the notion that dehydration from subducting slabs at convergent margins, as a continuing process through geologic time, can account for the fractionation of these elemental pairs between the Earth's crust and mantle. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Volcanic glasses with minor mafic mineral fragments, such as biotite and hornblende, found in deep-sea sediments of the South China Sea Basin (SCSB) have been clearly identified as eruptive products of the Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT), northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The tephra layer occurs between marine oxygen isotopic event 5.1 (79.3 ka) and event 4.22 (64.1 ka), with an interpolated age of 74.0 ka, which is in good consistence with previous radiometric dating (73‐75 ka) and ice-core dating (71 ^ 5 ka) of the YTT. The tephra consists predominantly of bubble-wall shards with minor elongated vesicles of pumice fragments. Geochemical characteristics of the tephra, such as high total alkali content, high 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio and uniformity of their compositions, all suggest that the recovered tephra is of the Youngest Toba Tuff. This finding supports an extended dispersal of coarse (.63 mm) glass shards over 1500 km northeast of the Toba caldera, a direction opposite to what previously conceived. While providing a better documentation of the distribution extent of the Toba ash, this report points to the need to reestimating the eruptive volume of the YTT and re-evaluating its environmental impact. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Being part of an active mountain belt formed by oblique collision of the Luzon arc with Asia, northern Taiwan and the offshore islets are marked by a series of latest Pliocene‐Quaternary volcanoes whose eruptions have been conventionally ascribed to westward propagation of the Ryukyu volcanic arc. On the basis of new geochemical data, along with supporting geologic and geophysical evidence, we propose instead that this young volcanism resulted from post-collisional lithospheric extension in the northern Taiwan mountain belt and the mantle source regions involved in the melt generation have been significantly modified by the nearby Ryukyu subduction-related processes. Magmas thus produced through the northeast to the southwest in the Northern Taiwan Volcanic Zone (NTVZ) vary from low-K to calc-alkaline and then shoshonitic compositions. Such a spatial geochemical variation, characterized by southwestward increase in enrichments of potassium and incompatible trace elements, runs subparallel to the southwestern part of the present-day Ryukyu Trench. The geochemical variation that can be explained by southwestward decrease in degrees of partial melting of the mantle sources is reconciled with a southwestward-weakening extensional regime observed in the NTVZ. The post-collisional extension in northern Taiwan, furthermore, might have played a role in reactivation of the opening in the middle Okinawa Trough, and gave way to its rapid southwestward propagation with associated development of the Ryukyu subduction zone west of124oE. This nascent subduction, in turn, resulted in abundant submarine volcanoes which delineate an embryo volcanic front along the southern margin of the trough. Therefore, the southwestern Okinawa Trough is not a ‘fore-arc’ basin as had been previously alleged, but represents an ‘atypical’ back-arc basin which developed broadly synchronously or prior to its arc‐trench system in this particular collision=extension=subduction tectonic environment. © 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

The magma generation at Unzen volcano may be considered as the product of crustal material mixed with mantle magma accompanied by fractional crystallization (AFC). The magma in the Unzen volcano is estimated to consist of about 50–80% of residual magma (F) and about 30–70% assimilated crustal material (A) relative to the original magma. Concerning the 1991–1995 eruption, it is estimated that the magma formed as the result of mixing of about 50–60% crustal material and about 55–65% of residual magma. An alternative magma eruption model for the 1991–1995 eruption is proposed here. In the early stage, the isotopic characteristics of 1991 eruption are defined by AFC process in the deeper magma chamber. Later, the magma ascended through the conduit and quiescently stayed for a long time in a shallow reservoir before eruption. The minerals continuously crystallized as phenocrysts especially at the chilled top and outer margin in the shallow chamber. The crystallized phenocryst mush was reworked into the central part of the magma chamber by means of magma convection and rapid magma ascent. Therefore, the reaction between phenocrysts and melt occurs only in internal chemical disequilibrium in the magma chamber. In contrast, the isotopic compositions of the original magma shall be little influenced by the above processes throughout its eruptive history. The 1991–1995 eruptive rocks of the Unzen volcano show their characteristics in Sr and Nd isotopic values independent of their two previous eruptions. However, the isotopic values of early eruptive product could represent the original magma value. This result also supports the previous work of Chen et al. (1993) [Chen, C.H., DePaolo, D.J., Nakada, S., Shieh, Y.N., 1993. Relationship between eruption volume and neodymium isotopic composition at Unzen volcano. Nature 362, 831–834], that suggested the eNd of early or precursory eruptive products could be a qualitative indicator of the maximum size of a continuing or impending eruption.

Samples of minerals from the Manaslu leucogranite in the central Himalaya were microsampled and measured for RbSr mineral ages. The ages obtained are used in conjunction with models for RbSr closure temperatures, to reconstruct the thermochronological history of the Manaslu granite. The RbSr results indicate a rapid change in temperature between 21 Ma and 17 Ma of 60–70°C/million yr, which, in turn, indicates unroofing at 2 mm/yr. The temperature-time curve inferred from RbSr data is in excellent agreement with existing ArAr data on the Manaslu granite and its thermal aureole. The results confirm that parts of the Himalaya, in addition to the Gangdese belt, were eroded rapidly in the 20-17 Ma time period, and this erosion could account for the observed rapid increase in seawater 87 Sr 86 Sr . A tourmaline-whole rock age of 29.5 Ma was obtained on a sample from the Chokkang Arm, but may be unreliable because of post-crystallization alteration of feldspar. Microsampling approaches are demonstrated that allow high precision isotopic data to be obtained on minerals sampled at scales of 100 μm or less. Microanalysis, combined with models for Sr redistribution, can be a useful thermochronological tool that can augment the 40Ar39Ar approach.

SILICA-rich lavas, erupted at island-arc or continental volcanoes, are often produced by a complex process involving the assimilation of crust into a crystallizing, mantle-derived basaltic magma1. The different strontium, neodymium and oxygen isotopic compositions of mantle-derived magmas and continental crust provide a powerful method for tracing the different contributions to continental silicic magmas, and for understanding the parameters controlling the composition and volume of erupted magma1–4. In the large rhyolite eruptive centres of the western United States, the largest-volume, explosive rhyolite eruptions have more mantle-like Nd isotope ratios than other silicic lavas from the same centre2–4, a relationship that has been interpreted as reflecting increased influx of mantle-derived basaltic magma to a crustal magma chamber before large-volume eruptions1. Here we report isotope data for lavas from Unzen volcano, which suggest a similar relationship: the Nd isotope composition is more mantle-like in three larger-volume dacite eruptions (>0.1 km3) than in one small-volume (0.02 km3) eruption. We accordingly suggest that, in small-volume systems like Unzen, where the timescales for magma-chamber evolution are of the order of decades, isotope data such as those presented here might be used in volcanic hazard evaluation.

[1] New chemical and isotopic analyses of the tephra layers plus deep-sea tephrostratigraphic record from two cores from either side of Luzon Island (Philippines) have allowed the identification of two periods of explosive volcanic activity originating from the Macolod Corridor in the southwestern part of the Luzon. The first period extended from prior to 1355 ka to 1977 ka, and the second period extended from 478 ka to the present, separated by a period of relative quiescence. The time intervals between large explosive eruption events in each period were 31 ± 15 ka and 156 ± 52 ka, respectively. Combined with published chronological and geochemical data from onshore volcanic deposits, the tephrostratigraphic record shows that the locus of large explosive eruptions has migrated southwestward from the northeastern section to the middle and southwestern sections of the Macolod Corridor. The period of relative quiescence is characterized by monogenetic volcanism in the central section of the corridor. The migration of active volcanism across the southwestern part of Luzon during the Quaternary is used to infer the evolution of the subducting South China Sea crust. The period of relative quiescence represents a period of adjustment of the subducted slab by steepening, which began around 1355 ka or shortly thereafter and finished at around 478 ka.

We appreciate the comments by Shane et al. on our paper ([Lee et al., 2004][1]). Shane et al. raise several interesting points about the main conclusion of our paper, which is the possibility of a link between the oldest Toba tuff eruption and the Pleistocene climate, although their main criticisms

The historical record of volcanic eruptions is extremely important for natural hazard reduction, especially in densely inhabited areas. In concert with clarification of contradictory points in the historical eruptions' record, we have modified the locality, eruption size, and timing of submarine volcanic eruptions around Taiwan. Three out of five submarine eruption records (catalog numbers 0801-04, 0801-05 and 0802-01) in northern offshore Taiwan can be clearly traced. These events indicate that volcanic activity in this area is still in progress; and hence a program for volcanic hazard reduction should be seriously considered in northern Taiwan. Two events (catalog numbers 0801-03 and 0801-02) shown to have occurred in the southeast offshore region of Taiwan appear to be related to the Eurasian Continental Plate's eastwardly subduction under the Philippine Sea Plate. However, the new seismic wave travel time tomography of the subduction zone will be needed to clarify this. The refined results shall contribute to the Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program and the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) for editing the next version of the Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World.

Little has been known about the earliest Toba eruptive episodes that created the largest-known caldera complex of Quaternary age. Here we report evidence for the eastward dispersal of the oldest Toba tuff in South China Sea sediments to 2500 km away from the source. The tephra deposits occur below the Brunhes-Matuyama geomagnetic boundary (778 ka) and slightly above the Australasian microtektite layer (793 ka). Calibrated by astronomically tuned oxygen isotope stratigraphy, the middle Pleistocene Toba eruption occurred during the deglaciation at 788 ′ 2.2 ka, according to the tephra occurrence between marine isotope stages 20 and 19. This refined age is in good agreement with the 4 0 Ar/ 3 9 Ar date of 800 ′ 20 ka for the Toba tephra (layer D) from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 758, but significantly younger than the commonly cited Ar/Ar age of 840 ′ 30 ka. The eruption expelled at least 800-1000 km 3 dense-rock-equivalent of rhyolitic magma on the basis of the widespread tephra-fall deposit in the basins of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. In spite of its exceptional magnitude, the timing of this major eruption does not indicate a causal linkage between this event and a long-term global climatic deterioration.

[Buhring et al. (2000)][1] reported that the ash layers in two cores from the South China Sea dated ca. 74 ka are distinct from the volcanic glass supplied from the Philippines and the northern South China Sea, but are almost identical in terms of the chemical compositions to the Toba ash. They

The Tatun volcanic area in the northern tip of Taiwan is composed of Pleistocene andesite and andesitic tuff. Its high relief causes extraordinarily heavy rainfall (> 3000 mm yr−1), especially during the winter monsoon season. Bauxite deposits were formed on the windward northern slopes. Soil samples from two profiles in the bauxite deposits were studied by chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis and hydrogen and oxygen isotopic analyses. The soil profiles can be divided into two zones by chemical characteristics. In the upper zone (zone A), the chemical composition of the soil samples undergoes little change except depletion of Na and Ca due to leaching. The major minerals are quartz, chlorite and illite. In the lower zone (zone B), all major elements suffer rapid dissolution except Al2O3. Gibbsite grows drastically at the expense of clays, while quartz diminishes sharply. Fe2O3 and TiO2 are enriched at the boundary between the two zones due to coprecipitation of Fe and Ti as hematite and goethite, probably as a result of increasing oxygen fugacity. Mobilization of Fe in zone B is attributed to its low Eh. Thus zone A is inferred as a permeable layer and zone B as an aquifer. The weathering rate in this area is estimated to be 12 cm ka−1. The most thoroughly leached soil samples contain up to 80% gibbsite. The high gibbsite contents and the analyses of coexisting waters allow hydrogen and oxygen isotopic fractionation factors between gibbsite and water to be calculated as 0.992 ± 0.002 and 1.016 ± 0.001, respectively.