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We introduce Imagen 3, a latent diffusion model that generates high quality images from text prompts. We describe our quality and responsibility evaluations. Imagen 3 is preferred over other state-of-the-art (SOTA) models at the time of evaluation. In addition, we discuss issues around safety and representation, as well as methods we used to minimize the potential harm of our models.

Long-context language models (LCLMs) have the potential to revolutionize our approach to tasks traditionally reliant on external tools like retrieval systems or databases. Leveraging LCLMs' ability to natively ingest and process entire corpora of information offers numerous advantages. It enhances user-friendliness by eliminating the need for specialized knowledge of tools, provides robust end-to-end modeling that minimizes cascading errors in complex pipelines, and allows for the application of sophisticated prompting techniques across the entire system. To assess this paradigm shift, we introduce LOFT, a benchmark of real-world tasks requiring context up to millions of tokens designed to evaluate LCLMs' performance on in-context retrieval and reasoning. Our findings reveal LCLMs' surprising ability to rival state-of-the-art retrieval and RAG systems, despite never having been explicitly trained for these tasks. However, LCLMs still face challenges in areas like compositional reasoning that are required in SQL-like tasks. Notably, prompting strategies significantly influence performance, emphasizing the need for continued research as context lengths grow. Overall, LOFT provides a rigorous testing ground for LCLMs, showcasing their potential to supplant existing paradigms and tackle novel tasks as model capabilities scale., Comment: 29 pages. Dataset available at https://github.com/google-deepmind/loft

We present Gecko, a compact and versatile text embedding model. Gecko achieves strong retrieval performance by leveraging a key idea: distilling knowledge from large language models (LLMs) into a retriever. Our two-step distillation process begins with generating diverse, synthetic paired data using an LLM. Next, we further refine the data quality by retrieving a set of candidate passages for each query, and relabeling the positive and hard negative passages using the same LLM. The effectiveness of our approach is demonstrated by the compactness of the Gecko. On the Massive Text Embedding Benchmark (MTEB), Gecko with 256 embedding dimensions outperforms all existing entries with 768 embedding size. Gecko with 768 embedding dimensions achieves an average score of 66.31, competing with 7x larger models and 5x higher dimensional embeddings., Comment: 18 pages

Image retrieval, i.e., finding desired images given a reference image, inherently encompasses rich, multi-faceted search intents that are difficult to capture solely using image-based measures. Recent works leverage text instructions to allow users to more freely express their search intents. However, they primarily focus on image pairs that are visually similar and/or can be characterized by a small set of pre-defined relations. The core thesis of this paper is that text instructions can enable retrieving images with richer relations beyond visual similarity. To show this, we introduce MagicLens, a series of self-supervised image retrieval models that support open-ended instructions. MagicLens is built on a key novel insight: image pairs that naturally occur on the same web pages contain a wide range of implicit relations (e.g., inside view of), and we can bring those implicit relations explicit by synthesizing instructions via foundation models. Trained on 36.7M (query image, instruction, target image) triplets with rich semantic relations mined from the web, MagicLens achieves results comparable with or better than prior best on eight benchmarks of various image retrieval tasks, while maintaining high parameter efficiency with a significantly smaller model size. Additional human analyses on a 1.4M-image unseen corpus further demonstrate the diversity of search intents supported by MagicLens. Code and models are publicly available at https://open-vision-language.github.io/MagicLens/., Comment: ICML 2024 (Oral); Project Website: https://open-vision-language.github.io/MagicLens/

This paper presents instruct-imagen, a model that tackles heterogeneous image generation tasks and generalizes across unseen tasks. We introduce *multi-modal instruction* for image generation, a task representation articulating a range of generation intents with precision. It uses natural language to amalgamate disparate modalities (e.g., text, edge, style, subject, etc.), such that abundant generation intents can be standardized in a uniform format. We then build instruct-imagen by fine-tuning a pre-trained text-to-image diffusion model with a two-stage framework. First, we adapt the model using the retrieval-augmented training, to enhance model's capabilities to ground its generation on external multimodal context. Subsequently, we fine-tune the adapted model on diverse image generation tasks that requires vision-language understanding (e.g., subject-driven generation, etc.), each paired with a multi-modal instruction encapsulating the task's essence. Human evaluation on various image generation datasets reveals that instruct-imagen matches or surpasses prior task-specific models in-domain and demonstrates promising generalization to unseen and more complex tasks., Comment: 20 pages, 18 figures

This report introduces a new family of multimodal models, Gemini, that exhibit remarkable capabilities across image, audio, video, and text understanding. The Gemini family consists of Ultra, Pro, and Nano sizes, suitable for applications ranging from complex reasoning tasks to on-device memory-constrained use-cases. Evaluation on a broad range of benchmarks shows that our most-capable Gemini Ultra model advances the state of the art in 30 of 32 of these benchmarks - notably being the first model to achieve human-expert performance on the well-studied exam benchmark MMLU, and improving the state of the art in every one of the 20 multimodal benchmarks we examined. We believe that the new capabilities of the Gemini family in cross-modal reasoning and language understanding will enable a wide variety of use cases. We discuss our approach toward post-training and deploying Gemini models responsibly to users through services including Gemini, Gemini Advanced, Google AI Studio, and Cloud Vertex AI.

Formulating selective information needs results in queries that implicitly specify set operations, such as intersection, union, and difference. For instance, one might search for "shorebirds that are not sandpipers" or "science-fiction films shot in England". To study the ability of retrieval systems to meet such information needs, we construct QUEST, a dataset of 3357 natural language queries with implicit set operations, that map to a set of entities corresponding to Wikipedia documents. The dataset challenges models to match multiple constraints mentioned in queries with corresponding evidence in documents and correctly perform various set operations. The dataset is constructed semi-automatically using Wikipedia category names. Queries are automatically composed from individual categories, then paraphrased and further validated for naturalness and fluency by crowdworkers. Crowdworkers also assess the relevance of entities based on their documents and highlight attribution of query constraints to spans of document text. We analyze several modern retrieval systems, finding that they often struggle on such queries. Queries involving negation and conjunction are particularly challenging and systems are further challenged with combinations of these operations., Comment: ACL 2023; Dataset available at https://github.com/google-research/language/tree/master/language/quest

We propose Conditional Adapter (CoDA), a parameter-efficient transfer learning method that also improves inference efficiency. CoDA generalizes beyond standard adapter approaches to enable a new way of balancing speed and accuracy using conditional computation. Starting with an existing dense pretrained model, CoDA adds sparse activation together with a small number of new parameters and a light-weight training phase. Our experiments demonstrate that the CoDA approach provides an unexpectedly efficient way to transfer knowledge. Across a variety of language, vision, and speech tasks, CoDA achieves a 2x to 8x inference speed-up compared to the state-of-the-art Adapter approach with moderate to no accuracy loss and the same parameter efficiency.

Multi-vector retrieval models such as ColBERT [Khattab and Zaharia, 2020] allow token-level interactions between queries and documents, and hence achieve state of the art on many information retrieval benchmarks. However, their non-linear scoring function cannot be scaled to millions of documents, necessitating a three-stage process for inference: retrieving initial candidates via token retrieval, accessing all token vectors, and scoring the initial candidate documents. The non-linear scoring function is applied over all token vectors of each candidate document, making the inference process complicated and slow. In this paper, we aim to simplify the multi-vector retrieval by rethinking the role of token retrieval. We present XTR, ConteXtualized Token Retriever, which introduces a simple, yet novel, objective function that encourages the model to retrieve the most important document tokens first. The improvement to token retrieval allows XTR to rank candidates only using the retrieved tokens rather than all tokens in the document, and enables a newly designed scoring stage that is two-to-three orders of magnitude cheaper than that of ColBERT. On the popular BEIR benchmark, XTR advances the state-of-the-art by 2.8 nDCG@10 without any distillation. Detailed analysis confirms our decision to revisit the token retrieval stage, as XTR demonstrates much better recall of the token retrieval stage compared to ColBERT., Comment: NeurIPS 2023. Code available at https://github.com/google-deepmind/xtr

Recent text-to-image generation models like DreamBooth have made remarkable progress in generating highly customized images of a target subject, by fine-tuning an ``expert model'' for a given subject from a few examples. However, this process is expensive, since a new expert model must be learned for each subject. In this paper, we present SuTI, a Subject-driven Text-to-Image generator that replaces subject-specific fine tuning with in-context learning. Given a few demonstrations of a new subject, SuTI can instantly generate novel renditions of the subject in different scenes, without any subject-specific optimization. SuTI is powered by apprenticeship learning, where a single apprentice model is learned from data generated by a massive number of subject-specific expert models. Specifically, we mine millions of image clusters from the Internet, each centered around a specific visual subject. We adopt these clusters to train a massive number of expert models, each specializing in a different subject. The apprentice model SuTI then learns to imitate the behavior of these fine-tuned experts. SuTI can generate high-quality and customized subject-specific images 20x faster than optimization-based SoTA methods. On the challenging DreamBench and DreamBench-v2, our human evaluation shows that SuTI significantly outperforms existing models like InstructPix2Pix, Textual Inversion, Imagic, Prompt2Prompt, Re-Imagen and DreamBooth, especially on the subject and text alignment aspects., Comment: Accepted at NeurIPS 2023. Model Service to be appear as Google Vertex AI - Instant Tuning (https://cloud.google.com/vertex-ai/docs/generative-ai/image/fine-tune-model). The link to demo video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q2xQ91D_dhM&t=2071s&ab_channel=GoogleCloud

Large-scale multi-modal pre-training models such as CLIP and PaLI exhibit strong generalization on various visual domains and tasks. However, existing image classification benchmarks often evaluate recognition on a specific domain (e.g., outdoor images) or a specific task (e.g., classifying plant species), which falls short of evaluating whether pre-trained foundational models are universal visual recognizers. To address this, we formally present the task of Open-domain Visual Entity recognitioN (OVEN), where a model need to link an image onto a Wikipedia entity with respect to a text query. We construct OVEN-Wiki by re-purposing 14 existing datasets with all labels grounded onto one single label space: Wikipedia entities. OVEN challenges models to select among six million possible Wikipedia entities, making it a general visual recognition benchmark with the largest number of labels. Our study on state-of-the-art pre-trained models reveals large headroom in generalizing to the massive-scale label space. We show that a PaLI-based auto-regressive visual recognition model performs surprisingly well, even on Wikipedia entities that have never been seen during fine-tuning. We also find existing pretrained models yield different strengths: while PaLI-based models obtain higher overall performance, CLIP-based models are better at recognizing tail entities., Comment: Dataset available at https://open-vision-language.github.io/oven

Pre-trained vision and language models have demonstrated state-of-the-art capabilities over existing tasks involving images and texts, including visual question answering. However, it remains unclear whether these models possess the capability to answer questions that are not only querying visual content but knowledge-intensive and information-seeking. In this study, we introduce InfoSeek, a visual question answering dataset tailored for information-seeking questions that cannot be answered with only common sense knowledge. Using InfoSeek, we analyze various pre-trained visual question answering models and gain insights into their characteristics. Our findings reveal that state-of-the-art pre-trained multi-modal models (e.g., PaLI-X, BLIP2, etc.) face challenges in answering visual information-seeking questions, but fine-tuning on the InfoSeek dataset elicits models to use fine-grained knowledge that was learned during their pre-training. Furthermore, we show that accurate visual entity recognition can be used to improve performance on InfoSeek by retrieving relevant documents, showing a significant space for improvement., Comment: EMNLP 2023 (main conference); Our dataset and evaluation is available at https://open-vision-language.github.io/infoseek/

Dynamic evaluation of language models (LMs) adapts model parameters at test time using gradient information from previous tokens and substantially improves LM performance. However, it requires over 3x more compute than standard inference. We present Fast Weight Layers (FWLs), a neural component that provides the benefits of dynamic evaluation much more efficiently by expressing gradient updates as linear attention. A key improvement over dynamic evaluation is that FWLs can also be applied at training time so the model learns to make good use of gradient updates. FWLs can easily be added on top of existing transformer models, require relatively little extra compute or memory to run, and significantly improve language modeling perplexity., Comment: EMNLP 2022 short paper

Visually-situated language is ubiquitous -- sources range from textbooks with diagrams to web pages with images and tables, to mobile apps with buttons and forms. Perhaps due to this diversity, previous work has typically relied on domain-specific recipes with limited sharing of the underlying data, model architectures, and objectives. We present Pix2Struct, a pretrained image-to-text model for purely visual language understanding, which can be finetuned on tasks containing visually-situated language. Pix2Struct is pretrained by learning to parse masked screenshots of web pages into simplified HTML. The web, with its richness of visual elements cleanly reflected in the HTML structure, provides a large source of pretraining data well suited to the diversity of downstream tasks. Intuitively, this objective subsumes common pretraining signals such as OCR, language modeling, image captioning. In addition to the novel pretraining strategy, we introduce a variable-resolution input representation and a more flexible integration of language and vision inputs, where language prompts such as questions are rendered directly on top of the input image. For the first time, we show that a single pretrained model can achieve state-of-the-art results in six out of nine tasks across four domains: documents, illustrations, user interfaces, and natural images., Comment: Accepted at ICML

Much recent research on information retrieval has focused on how to transfer from one task (typically with abundant supervised data) to various other tasks where supervision is limited, with the implicit assumption that it is possible to generalize from one task to all the rest. However, this overlooks the fact that there are many diverse and unique retrieval tasks, each targeting different search intents, queries, and search domains. In this paper, we suggest to work on Few-shot Dense Retrieval, a setting where each task comes with a short description and a few examples. To amplify the power of a few examples, we propose Prompt-base Query Generation for Retriever (Promptagator), which leverages large language models (LLM) as a few-shot query generator, and creates task-specific retrievers based on the generated data. Powered by LLM's generalization ability, Promptagator makes it possible to create task-specific end-to-end retrievers solely based on a few examples {without} using Natural Questions or MS MARCO to train %question generators or dual encoders. Surprisingly, LLM prompting with no more than 8 examples allows dual encoders to outperform heavily engineered models trained on MS MARCO like ColBERT v2 by more than 1.2 nDCG on average on 11 retrieval sets. Further training standard-size re-rankers using the same generated data yields another 5.0 point nDCG improvement. Our studies determine that query generation can be far more effective than previously observed, especially when a small amount of task-specific knowledge is given.

An abundance of datasets and availability of reliable evaluation metrics have resulted in strong progress in factoid question answering (QA). This progress, however, does not easily transfer to the task of long-form QA, where the goal is to answer questions that require in-depth explanations. The hurdles include (i) a lack of high-quality data, and (ii) the absence of a well-defined notion of the answer's quality. In this work, we address these problems by (i) releasing a novel dataset and a task that we call ASQA (Answer Summaries for Questions which are Ambiguous); and (ii) proposing a reliable metric for measuring performance on ASQA. Our task focuses on factoid questions that are ambiguous, that is, have different correct answers depending on interpretation. Answers to ambiguous questions should synthesize factual information from multiple sources into a long-form summary that resolves the ambiguity. In contrast to existing long-form QA tasks (such as ELI5), ASQA admits a clear notion of correctness: a user faced with a good summary should be able to answer different interpretations of the original ambiguous question. We use this notion of correctness to define an automated metric of performance for ASQA. Our analysis demonstrates an agreement between this metric and human judgments, and reveals a considerable gap between human performance and strong baselines., Comment: A minor bug in computing the ROUGE score was fixed. The fix **did not** result in any changes in observations and conclusions

Textual knowledge bases such as Wikipedia require considerable effort to keep up to date and consistent. While automated writing assistants could potentially ease this burden, the problem of suggesting edits grounded in external knowledge has been under-explored. In this paper, we introduce the novel generation task of *faithfully reflecting updated information in text* (FRUIT) where the goal is to update an existing article given new evidence. We release the FRUIT-WIKI dataset, a collection of over 170K distantly supervised data produced from pairs of Wikipedia snapshots, along with our data generation pipeline and a gold evaluation set of 914 instances whose edits are guaranteed to be supported by the evidence. We provide benchmark results for popular generation systems as well as EDIT5 -- a T5-based approach tailored to editing we introduce that establishes the state of the art. Our analysis shows that developing models that can update articles faithfully requires new capabilities for neural generation models, and opens doors to many new applications., Comment: v2.0, NAACL 2022

It has been shown that dual encoders trained on one domain often fail to generalize to other domains for retrieval tasks. One widespread belief is that the bottleneck layer of a dual encoder, where the final score is simply a dot-product between a query vector and a passage vector, is too limited to make dual encoders an effective retrieval model for out-of-domain generalization. In this paper, we challenge this belief by scaling up the size of the dual encoder model {\em while keeping the bottleneck embedding size fixed.} With multi-stage training, surprisingly, scaling up the model size brings significant improvement on a variety of retrieval tasks, especially for out-of-domain generalization. Experimental results show that our dual encoders, \textbf{G}eneralizable \textbf{T}5-based dense \textbf{R}etrievers (GTR), outperform %ColBERT~\cite{khattab2020colbert} and existing sparse and dense retrievers on the BEIR dataset~\cite{thakur2021beir} significantly. Most surprisingly, our ablation study finds that GTR is very data efficient, as it only needs 10\% of MS Marco supervised data to achieve the best out-of-domain performance. All the GTR models are released at https://tfhub.dev/google/collections/gtr/1.

Despite their success, large pre-trained multilingual models have not completely alleviated the need for labeled data, which is cumbersome to collect for all target languages. Zero-shot cross-lingual transfer is emerging as a practical solution: pre-trained models later fine-tuned on one transfer language exhibit surprising performance when tested on many target languages. English is the dominant source language for transfer, as reinforced by popular zero-shot benchmarks. However, this default choice has not been systematically vetted. In our study, we compare English against other transfer languages for fine-tuning, on two pre-trained multilingual models (mBERT and mT5) and multiple classification and question answering tasks. We find that other high-resource languages such as German and Russian often transfer more effectively, especially when the set of target languages is diverse or unknown a priori. Unexpectedly, this can be true even when the training sets were automatically translated from English. This finding can have immediate impact on multilingual zero-shot systems, and should inform future benchmark designs.

We study multi-answer retrieval, an under-explored problem that requires retrieving passages to cover multiple distinct answers for a given question. This task requires joint modeling of retrieved passages, as models should not repeatedly retrieve passages containing the same answer at the cost of missing a different valid answer. In this paper, we introduce JPR, the first joint passage retrieval model for multi-answer retrieval. JPR makes use of an autoregressive reranker that selects a sequence of passages, each conditioned on previously selected passages. JPR is trained to select passages that cover new answers at each timestep and uses a tree-decoding algorithm to enable flexibility in the degree of diversity. Compared to prior approaches, JPR achieves significantly better answer coverage on three multi-answer datasets. When combined with downstream question answering, the improved retrieval enables larger answer generation models since they need to consider fewer passages, establishing a new state-of-the-art., Comment: 13 pages; Published as a conference paper at EMNLP 2021 (long)

Sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) models are prevalent in semantic parsing, but have been found to struggle at out-of-distribution compositional generalization. While specialized model architectures and pre-training of seq2seq models have been proposed to address this issue, the former often comes at the cost of generality and the latter only shows limited success. In this paper, we study the impact of intermediate representations on compositional generalization in pre-trained seq2seq models, without changing the model architecture at all, and identify key aspects for designing effective representations. Instead of training to directly map natural language to an executable form, we map to a reversible or lossy intermediate representation that has stronger structural correspondence with natural language. The combination of our proposed intermediate representations and pre-trained models is surprisingly effective, where the best combinations obtain a new state-of-the-art on CFQ (+14.8 accuracy points) and on the template-splits of three text-to-SQL datasets (+15.0 to +19.4 accuracy points). This work highlights that intermediate representations provide an important and potentially overlooked degree of freedom for improving the compositional generalization abilities of pre-trained seq2seq models.

The traditional image captioning task uses generic reference captions to provide textual information about images. Different user populations, however, will care about different visual aspects of images. In this paper, we propose a new task, Captioning with a Purpose (CapWAP). Our goal is to develop systems that can be tailored to be useful for the information needs of an intended population, rather than merely provide generic information about an image. In this task, we use question-answer (QA) pairs---a natural expression of information need---from users, instead of reference captions, for both training and post-inference evaluation. We show that it is possible to use reinforcement learning to directly optimize for the intended information need, by rewarding outputs that allow a question answering model to provide correct answers to sampled user questions. We convert several visual question answering datasets into CapWAP datasets, and demonstrate that under a variety of scenarios our purposeful captioning system learns to anticipate and fulfill specific information needs better than its generic counterparts, as measured by QA performance on user questions from unseen images, when using the caption alone as context., Comment: EMNLP 2020

Sequence-to-sequence models excel at handling natural language variation, but have been shown to struggle with out-of-distribution compositional generalization. This has motivated new specialized architectures with stronger compositional biases, but most of these approaches have only been evaluated on synthetically-generated datasets, which are not representative of natural language variation. In this work we ask: can we develop a semantic parsing approach that handles both natural language variation and compositional generalization? To better assess this capability, we propose new train and test splits of non-synthetic datasets. We demonstrate that strong existing approaches do not perform well across a broad set of evaluations. We also propose NQG-T5, a hybrid model that combines a high-precision grammar-based approach with a pre-trained sequence-to-sequence model. It outperforms existing approaches across several compositional generalization challenges on non-synthetic data, while also being competitive with the state-of-the-art on standard evaluations. While still far from solving this problem, our study highlights the importance of diverse evaluations and the open challenge of handling both compositional generalization and natural language variation in semantic parsing., Comment: ACL 2021

In open question answering (QA), the answer to a question is produced by retrieving and then analyzing documents that might contain answers to the question. Most open QA systems have considered only retrieving information from unstructured text. Here we consider for the first time open QA over both tabular and textual data and present a new large-scale dataset Open Table-and-Text Question Answering (OTT-QA) to evaluate performance on this task. Most questions in OTT-QA require multi-hop inference across tabular data and unstructured text, and the evidence required to answer a question can be distributed in different ways over these two types of input, making evidence retrieval challenging -- our baseline model using an iterative retriever and BERT-based reader achieves an exact match score less than 10%. We then propose two novel techniques to address the challenge of retrieving and aggregating evidence for OTT-QA. The first technique is to use "early fusion" to group multiple highly relevant tabular and textual units into a fused block, which provides more context for the retriever to search for. The second technique is to use a cross-block reader to model the cross-dependency between multiple retrieved evidence with global-local sparse attention. Combining these two techniques improves the score significantly, to above 27%., Comment: Accepted to ICLR 2021. Main paper has 9 pages

We address the problem of extractive question answering using document-level distant super-vision, pairing questions and relevant documents with answer strings. We compare previously used probability space and distant super-vision assumptions (assumptions on the correspondence between the weak answer string labels and possible answer mention spans). We show that these assumptions interact, and that different configurations provide complementary benefits. We demonstrate that a multi-objective model can efficiently combine the advantages of multiple assumptions and out-perform the best individual formulation. Our approach outperforms previous state-of-the-art models by 4.3 points in F1 on TriviaQA-Wiki and 1.7 points in Rouge-L on NarrativeQA summaries., Comment: ACL2020

Language model pre-training has been shown to capture a surprising amount of world knowledge, crucial for NLP tasks such as question answering. However, this knowledge is stored implicitly in the parameters of a neural network, requiring ever-larger networks to cover more facts. To capture knowledge in a more modular and interpretable way, we augment language model pre-training with a latent knowledge retriever, which allows the model to retrieve and attend over documents from a large corpus such as Wikipedia, used during pre-training, fine-tuning and inference. For the first time, we show how to pre-train such a knowledge retriever in an unsupervised manner, using masked language modeling as the learning signal and backpropagating through a retrieval step that considers millions of documents. We demonstrate the effectiveness of Retrieval-Augmented Language Model pre-training (REALM) by fine-tuning on the challenging task of Open-domain Question Answering (Open-QA). We compare against state-of-the-art models for both explicit and implicit knowledge storage on three popular Open-QA benchmarks, and find that we outperform all previous methods by a significant margin (4-16% absolute accuracy), while also providing qualitative benefits such as interpretability and modularity.

Recent developments in natural language representations have been accompanied by large and expensive models that leverage vast amounts of general-domain text through self-supervised pre-training. Due to the cost of applying such models to down-stream tasks, several model compression techniques on pre-trained language representations have been proposed (Sun et al., 2019; Sanh, 2019). However, surprisingly, the simple baseline of just pre-training and fine-tuning compact models has been overlooked. In this paper, we first show that pre-training remains important in the context of smaller architectures, and fine-tuning pre-trained compact models can be competitive to more elaborate methods proposed in concurrent work. Starting with pre-trained compact models, we then explore transferring task knowledge from large fine-tuned models through standard knowledge distillation. The resulting simple, yet effective and general algorithm, Pre-trained Distillation, brings further improvements. Through extensive experiments, we more generally explore the interaction between pre-training and distillation under two variables that have been under-studied: model size and properties of unlabeled task data. One surprising observation is that they have a compound effect even when sequentially applied on the same data. To accelerate future research, we will make our 24 pre-trained miniature BERT models publicly available., Comment: Added comparison to concurrent work

We present the zero-shot entity linking task, where mentions must be linked to unseen entities without in-domain labeled data. The goal is to enable robust transfer to highly specialized domains, and so no metadata or alias tables are assumed. In this setting, entities are only identified by text descriptions, and models must rely strictly on language understanding to resolve the new entities. First, we show that strong reading comprehension models pre-trained on large unlabeled data can be used to generalize to unseen entities. Second, we propose a simple and effective adaptive pre-training strategy, which we term domain-adaptive pre-training (DAP), to address the domain shift problem associated with linking unseen entities in a new domain. We present experiments on a new dataset that we construct for this task and show that DAP improves over strong pre-training baselines, including BERT. The data and code are available at https://github.com/lajanugen/zeshel., Comment: ACL 2019

Automatically constructed datasets for generating text from semi-structured data (tables), such as WikiBio, often contain reference texts that diverge from the information in the corresponding semi-structured data. We show that metrics which rely solely on the reference texts, such as BLEU and ROUGE, show poor correlation with human judgments when those references diverge. We propose a new metric, PARENT, which aligns n-grams from the reference and generated texts to the semi-structured data before computing their precision and recall. Through a large scale human evaluation study of table-to-text models for WikiBio, we show that PARENT correlates with human judgments better than existing text generation metrics. We also adapt and evaluate the information extraction based evaluation proposed by Wiseman et al (2017), and show that PARENT has comparable correlation to it, while being easier to use. We show that PARENT is also applicable when the reference texts are elicited from humans using the data from the WebNLG challenge., Comment: To appear at ACL 2019

Recent work on open domain question answering (QA) assumes strong supervision of the supporting evidence and/or assumes a blackbox information retrieval (IR) system to retrieve evidence candidates. We argue that both are suboptimal, since gold evidence is not always available, and QA is fundamentally different from IR. We show for the first time that it is possible to jointly learn the retriever and reader from question-answer string pairs and without any IR system. In this setting, evidence retrieval from all of Wikipedia is treated as a latent variable. Since this is impractical to learn from scratch, we pre-train the retriever with an Inverse Cloze Task. We evaluate on open versions of five QA datasets. On datasets where the questioner already knows the answer, a traditional IR system such as BM25 is sufficient. On datasets where a user is genuinely seeking an answer, we show that learned retrieval is crucial, outperforming BM25 by up to 19 points in exact match., Comment: Accepted to ACL 2019

In this paper we study yes/no questions that are naturally occurring --- meaning that they are generated in unprompted and unconstrained settings. We build a reading comprehension dataset, BoolQ, of such questions, and show that they are unexpectedly challenging. They often query for complex, non-factoid information, and require difficult entailment-like inference to solve. We also explore the effectiveness of a range of transfer learning baselines. We find that transferring from entailment data is more effective than transferring from paraphrase or extractive QA data, and that it, surprisingly, continues to be very beneficial even when starting from massive pre-trained language models such as BERT. Our best method trains BERT on MultiNLI and then re-trains it on our train set. It achieves 80.4% accuracy compared to 90% accuracy of human annotators (and 62% majority-baseline), leaving a significant gap for future work., Comment: In NAACL 2019

Hierarchical neural architectures are often used to capture long-distance dependencies and have been applied to many document-level tasks such as summarization, document segmentation, and sentiment analysis. However, effective usage of such a large context can be difficult to learn, especially in the case where there is limited labeled data available. Building on the recent success of language model pretraining methods for learning flat representations of text, we propose algorithms for pre-training hierarchical document representations from unlabeled data. Unlike prior work, which has focused on pre-training contextual token representations or context-independent {sentence/paragraph} representations, our hierarchical document representations include fixed-length sentence/paragraph representations which integrate contextual information from the entire documents. Experiments on document segmentation, document-level question answering, and extractive document summarization demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed pre-training algorithms.

We study approaches to improve fine-grained short answer Question Answering models by integrating coarse-grained data annotated for paragraph-level relevance and show that coarsely annotated data can bring significant performance gains. Experiments demonstrate that the standard multi-task learning approach of sharing representations is not the most effective way to leverage coarse-grained annotations. Instead, we can explicitly model the latent fine-grained short answer variables and optimize the marginal log-likelihood directly or use a newly proposed \emph{posterior distillation} learning objective. Since these latent-variable methods have explicit access to the relationship between the fine and coarse tasks, they result in significantly larger improvements from coarse supervision.

We introduce a new language representation model called BERT, which stands for Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers. Unlike recent language representation models, BERT is designed to pre-train deep bidirectional representations from unlabeled text by jointly conditioning on both left and right context in all layers. As a result, the pre-trained BERT model can be fine-tuned with just one additional output layer to create state-of-the-art models for a wide range of tasks, such as question answering and language inference, without substantial task-specific architecture modifications. BERT is conceptually simple and empirically powerful. It obtains new state-of-the-art results on eleven natural language processing tasks, including pushing the GLUE score to 80.5% (7.7% point absolute improvement), MultiNLI accuracy to 86.7% (4.6% absolute improvement), SQuAD v1.1 question answering Test F1 to 93.2 (1.5 point absolute improvement) and SQuAD v2.0 Test F1 to 83.1 (5.1 point absolute improvement).

Semantic parsing from denotations faces two key challenges in model training: (1) given only the denotations (e.g., answers), search for good candidate semantic parses, and (2) choose the best model update algorithm. We propose effective and general solutions to each of them. Using policy shaping, we bias the search procedure towards semantic parses that are more compatible to the text, which provide better supervision signals for training. In addition, we propose an update equation that generalizes three different families of learning algorithms, which enables fast model exploration. When experimented on a recently proposed sequential question answering dataset, our framework leads to a new state-of-the-art model that outperforms previous work by 5.0% absolute on exact match accuracy., Comment: Accepted at EMNLP 2018

Neural network models are capable of generating extremely natural sounding conversational interactions. Nevertheless, these models have yet to demonstrate that they can incorporate content in the form of factual information or entity-grounded opinion that would enable them to serve in more task-oriented conversational applications. This paper presents a novel, fully data-driven, and knowledge-grounded neural conversation model aimed at producing more contentful responses without slot filling. We generalize the widely-used Seq2Seq approach by conditioning responses on both conversation history and external "facts", allowing the model to be versatile and applicable in an open-domain setting. Our approach yields significant improvements over a competitive Seq2Seq baseline. Human judges found that our outputs are significantly more informative., Comment: AAAI 2018 (9 pages)

Since large knowledge bases are typically incomplete, missing facts need to be inferred from observed facts in a task called knowledge base completion. The most successful approaches to this task have typically explored explicit paths through sequences of triples. These approaches have usually resorted to human-designed sampling procedures, since large knowledge graphs produce prohibitively large numbers of possible paths, most of which are uninformative. As an alternative approach, we propose performing a single, short sequence of interactive lookup operations on an embedded knowledge graph which has been trained through end-to-end backpropagation to be an optimized and compressed version of the initial knowledge base. Our proposed model, called Embedded Knowledge Graph Network (EKGN), achieves new state-of-the-art results on popular knowledge base completion benchmarks.

Recent work in semantic parsing for question answering has focused on long and complicated questions, many of which would seem unnatural if asked in a normal conversation between two humans. In an effort to explore a conversational QA setting, we present a more realistic task: answering sequences of simple but inter-related questions. We collect a dataset of 6,066 question sequences that inquire about semi-structured tables from Wikipedia, with 17,553 question-answer pairs in total. Existing QA systems face two major problems when evaluated on our dataset: (1) handling questions that contain coreferences to previous questions or answers, and (2) matching words or phrases in a question to corresponding entries in the associated table. We conclude by proposing strategies to handle both of these issues.