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In large parts of Europe biodiversity in agricultural landscapes has experienced strong declines over the past decades because of land-use change and intensification of cultivation methods, but more recently also due to modernization of villages. One of the aspects of modernization is the arising of large specialized poultry and pig farms. Our study carried out in central and east-central Poland focused on the role of habitats within 101 animal farms in relation to bird species richness and number of pairs. We also compared the density of some bird species on farms and in neighbouring villages to determine the importance of the farm environment for the birds. Species richness increased with the number of buildings, the number of trees and the presence of piles of rubble. The number of pairs increased with the number of trees, and the presence of ponds and piles of rubble. Many-times higher densities on farms than in surrounding villages of several species were noteworthy: Black Redstart, Northern Wheatear, White Wagtail and Crested Lark. Animal farms are an important refuge for several species, including those belonging to drastically declining farmland species. Despite the opinion that the modernization of the villages is having a disastrous effect on the avifauna, the modernization may also have positive aspects for some bird species.

Despite being one of the most common congenital hand abnormalities in humans, polydactyly remains extremely rare in bats. To date, it has been observed only in two insectivorous families in North America (Molossidae and Vespertilionidae) and a single case for the New World fruit bats (Phyllostomidae). We report the first case of polydactyly in a European bat – a Myotis daubentonii (Vespertilionidae), with eight toes. The bat was found alive, hibernating in the Natura 2000 site (PLH080003 “Nietoperek”) in Poland.

The Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius) is considered as the most important factor in the dispersal and spread of oak species. We conducted studies in oak stands in four countries (Poland, Hungary, Romania, Ukraine) in the autumn of 2015 and 2016. To identify the preferences of Jays for both acorns and trees, we compared the size of acorns and tree characteristics between each selected tree and the closest unused oak. We found that acorns from selected oaks were smaller (narrower) than those from unused trees. We found no differences in the characteristics of selected and unused oaks. These results indicate that the size of acorns can be an important indicator determining the choices of foraging birds. The Jays’ preferences for specific trees may influence the composition of oak populations. Trees with certain phenotypic and genomic characteristics may be favoured and dominate in the ecosystem.

Numerous studies have investigated the nest-site characteristics and selection of bird species, because these features often play a determining role in bird breeding success. In recent years researchers focused on urban environments as a source of novel conditions which provide breeding opportunities for species that are able to survive in human-altered environments. Although thrushes Turdus spp. are among the species which frequently inhabit urban areas, the fieldfare Turdus pilaris only recently has started to colonize human settlements and reports on populations in urban ecosystem are rare. The aim of our study was to investigate the fieldfare density and nest-site selection in urban parks of Rzeszow, Poland. We found that the average density of breeding pairs in study area was 2.92 pair/ha. Fieldfares nested entirely on deciduous trees, despite the presence of numerous coniferous trees in parks. They built their nests mostly on those tree species which were the most abundant in particular study plot, which indicates that the studied urban population of the fieldfare is rather opportunistic in the selection of a nest-tree species. Also nest-tree surroundings consisted of the trees that dominated in the parks. The results of our study suggest that the fieldfare is among the species that synurbize easily and may reach even higher breeding densities in towns than in natural habitats.

We examined the relationship between individual heterozygosity of male Red-breasted Flycatchers (Ficedula parva; a small long-distance migratory, socially monogamous bird species) and their mating success, arrival time and age. Using eight polymorphic microsatellite loci, we found that male heterozygosity is related to both mating success and arrival time, but not to age. Mated and earlier arriving males had higher heterozygosity than later arrivals and bachelors, but we did not find a relationship between age and individual heterozygosity of males. To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide evidence about the relationship between individual genetic diversity and arrival time, thus arrival time could be used as a signal of individual heterozygosity and quality.

Domestic and wild mammals, domestic birds and particularly wild birds are considered to be reservoirs of many species of Enterobacteriaceae, and also important human enteric pathogens, e.g., the bacteria of the genus Campylobacter that occur in their digestive tracts. These species may be vectors of antimicrobial resistance dissemination in the environment, because they may have contact with an environment contaminated with antibiotics. Bird feeders have been suggested as potential dispersal centres between wild wintering birds whose feeding is supported by humans. Therefore, we checked for the presence of Campylobacter bacteria among great tits Parus major, the most common bird species on bird feeders in Poland. Samples (n = 787 cloacal swabs) were collected in urban and rural areas of Poland. Bacterial species were identified using multiplex PCR, and 23 (2.9%) positive tests for Campylobacter spp. were found; in ten samples, C. jejuni was detected. The odds ratio of Campylobacter infection in rural birds was over 2.5 times higher than urban birds. Ten samples with C. jejuni were tested for antibiotic resistance, and all were sensitive to azithromycin, erythromycin and gentamycin, while six isolates were resistant to tetracycline, and five were resistant to ciprofloxacin. Four Campylobacter isolates were resistant to both these antibiotics.

The nest is an important part of reproduction of many altricial bird species and nest construction is varied, for example in site selection, shape and construction material. We studied nest composition in the Red-breasted Flycatcher ( Ficedula parva), breeding in natural holes in primeval stands of the Białtowieża Forest. The nests were constructed of three main elements: moss, which was detected in all nests, dry leaves and hair. Moss was found in all nests and comprised on average more than 84% of nest mass. The proportion of moss was dependent on the living/dead status of the tree but not on the depth of the nest cavity or its height above the ground. In cavities located in live trees the proportion of moss in the nest was, on average, higher than in dead trees. The moss in the nests of the Red-breasted Flycatcher can regulate moisture (humidity), provide protection from rain and water from the tree, i.e. from the inner walls of the nest cavity, and can play a role as camouflage in passive protection against predators. Variation in nest construction suggests plasticity in the behaviour of the female Red-breasted Flycatcher in using nest components in relation to nest site characteristics and environmental conditions.

We documented the composition and structure of the breeding bird assemblage in the primeval temperate forest of the Bialowieza National Park (BNP), during 2010-2014, and used 40 years of data to assess patterns of its diver- sity. We applied an improved version of the mapping technique (a combined mapping method) for forest birds in seven plots located in three old-growth forest types: ash-alder riverine, oak-hornbeam, and mixed coniferous. The composi- tion of the breeding avifauna and species richness remained basically unchanged. Jointly 67 (79% of 40-year total) breeding species were recorded in 2010-2014. Overall 49 (57%) of all species bred in the study plots in more than 35 years, they formed c. 97% of the pairs in the breeding assemblage. The composition of the group of dominants changed slightly; Phylloscopus sibilatrix became much less numerous in comparison to the earlier periods. Anthus trivialis ceased to breed — possibly due to disappearance of its habitat. The numbers of Sylvia atricapilla reached the highest ever level, and those of Columba palumbus and Dendrocopos medius equalled the maxima observed during 40 years. The overall breeding densities did not change significantly but they were substantially lower than in the peak year (2001). Crown insectivores, crown nesters and short-distance migrants remained the most numerous foraging, nesting and migratory groups, respectively. The earlier observed density gradient across habitats - highest in the riverine, lowest in the conif- erous stands - was retained. Overall composition of the breeding avifauna did not change during 40 years, and no col- onization of forest areas by a new species, nor extinction of a formerly widespread species, except A. trivialis, were observed. Some local changes of species richness occurred, however. Large-scale changes in coniferous habitats due to die-back of Picea abies and appearance of canopy gaps were followed by the increase in species richness there, while dis- appearance of former sharp forest edges reduced the number of species breeding in the "edge" plots. We suggest that the high constancy of species composition of the breeding bird assemblage in BNP results largely from the interplay of two factors: 1) long-term stability of the forest habitats, causing places suitable in one year to remain so over many sea- sons, and 2) cross-generational reproducibility of the selection criteria used by the birds in their settlement decisions.

Recent avian studies suggest that offspring sex ratios can vary with environmental or parental characteristics. One example is that females may adjust brood sex ratio of fledglings in response to the sexual attractiveness of their mate and are expected to produce more sons when mated with older or more ornamented males. We determined offspring sex ratios at fledging (158 nestlings from 33 broods) in a population of migratory bird species, Red-breasted Flycatchers (Ficedula parva) that were breeding on the western edge of their geographic range, in the strictly protected part of the Bialowieza Forest (north-eastern Poland). The ratio of individual broods ranged from all male to all female, but the average offspring sex ratio at the population level did not deviate significantly from the expected 50:50 sex ratio. Moreover, we found no evidence that sex ratio varied significantly with year, with the incidence of extra-pair paternity, with partial brood losses, or with brood size. However, females ma...

© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Society for Behavioral Ecology. Animals respond to approaching predators by taking flight at a distance that optimizes the costs and benefits of such flight. Previous studies have shown that urban populations of birds have shorter flight initiation distances than rural populations of the same species, that this difference is partly explained by differences in the community of predators, and that a longer history of urbanization implies a greater reduction in flight initiation distance in urban populations. The use of birdfeeders may be an additional factor reducing flight initiation distance not only in cities but also elsewhere by among other effects increasing body condition, increasing availability and reliability of food, and hence reducing the relative cost of flight. Here, we tested the prediction that urban habitats and presence of feeders independently accounted for reductions in flight initiation distance using extensive samples from different cities in Poland. We found independent significant effects of urban habitat and presence of feeders on flight initiation distance. These findings suggest that different factors have contributed to the >tameness> of urban birds.

Anthropogenic changes, including road network, have strongly influenced biodiversity of Europe. For the past 100 years road networks have become a conspicuous part of European landscape and strongly affected environment and human well-being, including effect by noise. To reduce impact of noise the special barriers (mainly transparent) are installed along a road. Annually thousands of birds die in collision with glass and acrylic screens, and these are important causes of avian mortality. Here we report about and describe how to prevent the lethal hazards that clear and acrylic (plastic) noise barriers along an urban road in eastern Poland pose to birds. A total of 114 fatal strikes representing 26 species were documented along transparent noise barriers. In unmodified sections in both study periods (2012/2013 and 2013/2014) we observed differences in number of fatalities between the seasons, the dead birds were found mostly in the summer, less in the spring and autumn and fewest in winter, but no differences were found between study periods (2012/2013 v. 2013/2014). These result we treat as base line or control data and compare them to experimental modification of the same barriers. After applying a film consisting of horizontal black thick stripes the number of fatal strikes decreased significantly. The average number of fatalities decreased from 1.02 to 0.06 ind./km for all panels of all sections combined and the number of species killed decreased from 19 in unmodified to 4 in modified sections. We highly recommend this effective and inexpensive application as a responsible public utility measure to protect bird life found near roads.

One of the most important factors influencing breeding success in many bird species is predation. Nest site choice is one way of lowering the probability of such losses. In an agricultural landscape of eastern Poland, we examined the relationship between red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio) nest site characteristics, i.e., height above ground, concealment, and occurrence of thorns, and the risk of nest predation. We also considered the relationship with distance to potential predators, i.e., corvid nests, and the distance to buildings. Our results showed that only 1 environmental factor significantly influenced breeding success. Birds nesting closer to buildings achieved higher breeding success than those more distant from buildings. A positive correlation between date of first egg laying and distance from the nest to the buildings was also found. These results indicate that areas with human activities and buildings can created habitats that improve breeding success for some species. On the other ...

Despite advances in knowledge, in many bird species, the true mating system is unknown, and especially so for birds breeding at low densities under natural conditions. We studied paternity at the population and breeding pair level in the Red-breasted Flycatcher ( Ficedula parva), a small, migrant passerine breeding in old-growth Białowieża Forest. Over seven breeding seasons we genotyped a total of 159 nestlings and 25 adult males as fathers from 33 broods of the Red-breasted Flycatcher. Extra-pair young were present in eight broods (24.2%). Twelve (7.5%) chicks mismatched with the ‘social’ male in several loci. Both low breeding density and synchrony in breeding phenology can explain such findings. Also of interest was the share of extra-pair paternity at the individual level, in relation to the age/ornamentation of the extra-pair male. Male Red-breasted Flycatchers exhibit delayed plumage maturation. Young males (second year) are without an orange badge on the throat and breast, while older males (after-second year) are ornamented and have an orange badge. The extra-pair nestlings were found in eight broods, four with young males as a fathers (36.4%) and four in broods of old males (18.2%). However, in all seven cases when the age of the extra-pair partner was known, irrespective of the age of the social father, the extra-pair partner was a male with an orange patch on the breast. This indicated female preference for ornamented males as partners for extra-pair copulation.

© 2014 The Authors. Nests are structures built to support and protect eggs and/or offspring from predators, parasites, and adverse weather conditions. Nests are mainly constructed prior to egg laying, meaning that parent birds must make decisions about nest site choice and nest building behavior before the start of egg-laying. Parent birds should be selected to choose nest sites and to build optimally sized nests, yet our current understanding of clutch size-nest size relationships is limited to small-scale studies performed over short time periods. Here, we quantified the relationship between clutch size and nest size, using an exhaustive database of 116 slope estimates based on 17,472 nests of 21 species of hole and non-hole-nesting birds. There was a significant, positive relationship between clutch size and the base area of the nest box or the nest, and this relationship did not differ significantly between open nesting and hole-nesting species. The slope of the relationship showed significant intraspecific and interspecific heterogeneity among four species of secondary hole-nesting species, but also among all 116 slope estimates. The estimated relationship between clutch size and nest box base area in study sites with more than a single size of nest box was not significantly different from the relationship using studies with only a single size of nest box. The slope of the relationship between clutch size and nest base area in different species of birds was significantly negatively related to minimum base area, and less so to maximum base area in a given study. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that bird species have a general reaction norm reflecting the relationship between nest size and clutch size. Further, they suggest that scientists may influence the clutch size decisions of hole-nesting birds through the provisioning of nest boxes of varying sizes.

Natural riverbeds in arid regions of Central Asia play an important role in waterbird migration. However, agricultural irrigation in the Aral Sea basin, in combination with climate change, is leading to wetland habitat loss. In this study, we consider the importance of the 2 largest river systems in this region during postbreeding movements and compare waterbird assemblages in relation to habitat parameters between the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers. In the second half of August 2011, we counted waterbirds along 125 and 106 km of the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers, respectively. Both rivers showed a high similarity of richness indices. Analysis of waterbird occurrence in sections of river habitat showed no differences in the numbers of individuals, but the numbers of species on the Syr-Darya sections were significantly higher than on the Amu-Darya sections. A negative regression relationship between the number of species and the riverbed width could be explained by the greater attractiveness of small, shallow reservoirs compared with the flowing river with wide riverbeds. However, both rivers should be regarded as important places in the Palearctic for migratory waterbirds, despite negative changes in the habitat quality of wetlands in the arid zone of this region.

We tested 24 microsatellite markers for the red-breasted flycatcher, Ficedula parva, using the primers for the PCR reaction described for other species from genus Ficedula. The amplification efficiency, specificity of the products, and polymorphism of cross-amplified microsatellites were determined based on the genotypes of 65 adult males from a natural population breeding in Bialowieza Forest (Eastern Poland). Based on obtained results, we identified 9 highly polymorphic microsatellites, consistently amplifying in majority of individuals. Among those markers between 4 and 26 alleles per locus (mean 15.4) were found and the observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.393 to 0.939. The majority of loci (except for Fhy350 and Fhy458) were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Accordingly, the values of FIS did not significantly differ from zero 0, except for the locus Fhy350. We suggest that this locus could be loaded with high frequency of null alleles. The polymorphic information content (PIC) for the select...

Individuals that arrive earlier on the breeding grounds may obtain many advantages but they also have to spend time waiting for a mate. I studied the waiting times of male red-breasted flycatchers Ficedula parva, a small, migratory, sexually dichromatic passerine bird species under natural conditions (Bialowieza National Park, Poland) in relation to year, arrival time, age of male and morphological parameters. The length of waiting time was dependent on males’ arrival time. The males which arrived later waited a shorter time for females than earlier arrivals. In some years older males spent more time waiting for mates than younger males, but in other years they waited for shorter times. A significant interaction between age of male and year was also observed. Despite the significantly earlier arrival of older males, the waiting time was not related to male age. The waiting time was also not related to body biometric parameters of the male. Despite waiting longer, early male red-breasted flycatchers have an advantage over later arrivals given this greater chance of mating.

Artur Golawski and Cezary Mitrus (2018) Birds show considerable variation in egg size, both within and between clutches. There are many factors affecting egg dimensions including features of the birds themselves, territory quality, food abundance and weather conditions. One feature that varies in clutches is repeatability of egg dimensions within a clutch. We studied variation in egg size in clutches of the Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio in east-central Poland and examined the effects of territory quality and weather conditions on egg size repeatability. Repeatability of egg size was low and ranged from 0.51 to 0.55. No significant differences in egg dimensions were found between clutch size classes (3 to 7 eggs, modal clutch size of 6). Weather conditions only influenced repeatability of egg volume. This parameter was affected by the year and one environmental factor - total rainfall immediately before egg laying. With increasing rainfall, the repeatability of egg volume decreased. Weather conditions can influence food availability and in this way also affect egg size. The Red- backed Shrike diet consists mainly of insects, the activity of which significantly decreased during rainfall. In such conditions, birds have to spend more energy to gain food, which could consequently lead to differences in egg size.

Marie Vaugoyeau [et al.], The increase in size of human populations in urban and agricultural areas has resulted in considerable habitat conversion globally. Such anthropogenic areas have specific environmental characteristics, which influence the physiology, life history, and population dynamics of plants and animals. For example, the date of bud burst is advanced in urban compared to nearby natural areas. In some birds, breeding success is determined by synchrony between timing of breeding and peak food abundance. Pertinently, caterpillars are an important food source for the nestlings of many bird species, and their abundance is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and date of bud burst. Higher temperatures and advanced date of bud burst in urban areas could advance peak caterpillar abundance and thus affect breeding phenology of birds. In order to test whether laying date advance and clutch sizes decrease with the intensity of urbanization, we analyzed the timing of breeding and clutch size in relation to intensity of urbanization as a measure of human impact in 199 nest box plots across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East (i.e., the Western Palearctic) for four species of hole-nesters: blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus), great tits (Parus major), collared flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis), and pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca). Meanwhile, we estimated the intensity of urbanization as the density of buildings surrounding study plots measured on orthophotographs. For the four study species, the intensity of urbanization was not correlated with laying date. Clutch size in blue and great tits does not seem affected by the intensity of urbanization, while in collared and pied flycatchers it decreased with increasing intensity of urbanization. This is the first large-scale study showing a species-specific major correlation between intensity of urbanization and the ecology of breeding. The underlying mechanisms for the relationships between life history and urbanization remain to be determined. We propose that effects of food abundance or quality, temperature, noise, pollution, or disturbance by humans may on their own or in combination affect laying date and/or clutch size., E. Barba acknowledges funding of project CGL2013-48001-C2-1-P (Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation).

Urban environments cover vast areas with a high density of humans and their dogs and cats causing problems for exploitation of new resources by wild animals. Such resources facilitate colonization by individuals with a high level of neophilia predicting that urban animals should show more neophilia than rural conspecifics. We provided bird-feeders across urban environments in 14 Polish cities and matched nearby rural habitats, testing whether the presence of a novel item (a brightly coloured green object made out of gum with a tuft of hair) differentially delayed arrival at feeders in rural compared to urban habitats. The presence of a novel object reduced the number of great tits Parus major, but also the total number of all species of birds although differentially so in urban compared to rural areas. That was the case independent of the potentially confounding effects of temperature, population density of birds and the abundance of cats, dogs and pedestrians. The number of great tits and the total number of birds attending feeders increased in urban compared to rural areas independent of local population density of birds. This implies that urban birds have high levels of neophilia allowing them to readily exploit unpredictable resources in urban environments.

Older red-breasted flycatcher males (after the second year) have an orange patch on the throat and breast. To date, the occurrence of this ornament has been explained in terms of male-male interactions. In this paper, we show that badge size also influences the mating success of red-breasted-flycatcher males. In addition to the size of the ornament, arrival time was a second factor related to the males' mating success, but no effects of body parameters such as wing length, tarsus length, and body mass were observed. Mated males arrived significantly earlier than unmated ones. The arrival time of males was negatively correlated to body mass and positively correlated to tarsus length but no relation to wing length or badge size was observed. No correlations between badge size and body parameters were observed. This ornament was evolved through sexual selection, with both male-male interaction and selection pressure arising from female preference for males with larger badges.

SummaryMany woodpecker species are known to be sensitive to the removal of dead wood. In 1999–2001 and 2007–2009 woodpeckers and dead wood abundance were studied in coniferous stands of the Białowieża Forest, Poland. Transects (3.9–6 km long) were established in three zones of different types of management: 1) primeval, unmanaged stands (BNP); 2) partially managed nature reserve (RES); 3) heavily managed stands (MAN). Woodpeckers were counted along transects three times per season, and tree stand measurements (number of standing and fallen trees, diameter at breast height, volume of fallen logs) were made once every three years. Woodpecker indices were highest in BNP and lowest in RES in both three-year study periods. The highest number of species (seven) was recorded in RES. Indices of four woodpeckers including two focal species (Three-toed WoodpeckerPicoides tridactylusand White-backed WoodpeckerDendrocopos leucotos) were dependent on the basal area of dead standing trees. The same relation was found for the whole woodpecker assemblage. The highest indices were recorded in BNP, where the highest density of dead standing trees was recorded, and the lowest in the MAN transect with the lowest density of dead trees. However in the RES plot the amount of dead wood was much lower than in the national park. We recommend that the management regulations in Polish nature reserves be changed. In coniferous reserves, it would be best to leave at least 2 m2ha-1(basal area) of freshly killed sprucePiceasp. after each bark beetle outbreak.

The composition and structure of the breeding bird assemblage in the Bialowieza National Park (BNP) were documented in 2005-2009 and compared with the data from the previous 30 years. Mapping censuses were carried out in seven plots located in three forest types: ash-alder riverine, oak-hornbeam, and mixed coniferous forest. We checked whether the bird community composition had remained stable over the 35 years and the extent to which the numeri- cal trends in BNP followed the regional trends. The composition of breeding avifauna and species richness was basical- ly unchanged, except for the strongly increasing Sylvia atricapilla, which became a regular dominant in all habitats. The density gradient across habitats — highest in the riverine, lowest in the coniferous stands - was retained. After a max- imum in 2001, the numbers of birds declined slightly, but densities were still among the highest in 35 years. Numbers of 18 of the 26 commonest species were higher in 2005-2009 than in 1975-2009; only Anthus trivialis, Phylloscopus sibila- trix, Ficedula parva showed negative trends, and Ficedula hypoleuca almost went extinct recently. Some numerical changes were attributable to local habitat changes (increases in Phylloscopus collybita and Sylvia atricapilla, declines in spruce- dependent species). Numbers of only four of 22 species (Dendrocopos major, Erithacus rubecula, S. atricapilla, Parus major) changed concurrently in BNP and the rest of Poland. The apparent lack of a relationship between changes in bird num- bers and the local and regional situation suggests that factors acting on a far larger scale could have been involved. Despite these numerical changes, the breeding bird assemblage of primeval temperate forest stands out as an example of remarkable stability.

Parental care is one of the crucial factors affecting breeding success in birds. The level of parent investment can differ between males and females. We studied the sex-specific nestling-feeding effort by parents of the red-breasted flycatcher. Our study was carried out in the old-growth oak—lime—hornbeam stands in the Bialowieza National Park (NE Poland). The frequency of nestling-feeding and relative nestling-feeding effort (number of visits by male or female expressed a percentage of all visits by both sexes at the nest) depended on sex of parents and age of nestlings but not on their number. Both sexes increased their feeding frequency as the nestlings became older. Sex differences in nestling-feeding have been found in a number of biparental-care bird species. There are many hypotheses to explain this phenomenon. In the red-breasted flycatcher, the most likely reason for differences in feeding efforts are differences in roles the parents play at different stages of brood develompent.

Kasprzykowski Z., Go3awski A., Mitrus C. 2009. Observations of waterbirds on the Upper Euphrates during autumn migration. Ring 31, 2: 79-84. On 12-15 September 2004 we conducted a count of birds on a 68 km section of the Upper Euphrates, from the Ataturk dam to the town of Halfeti. Altogether 291 individuals from 30 waterbird species were noted, their density was 42.8 indiv. / 10 km. Differentiation in numbers among particular trophic and morpho-ecological groups was significant. Within the trophic groups the phytophagous and ichthyophagous species were the most abundant. The most numerous within the morpho-ecological groups were the swimmers and flight feeders. Despite the lack of appropriate foraging places for some waterbird species, this part of the Euphrates plays an important role for autumn migration in this region. In comparison with other large Western Palearctic rivers, the Upper Euphrates showed low densities of birds and low species similarity.

Capsule Predation is a major factor influencing the breeding success of Red-breasted Flycatchers under natural conditions. Aims To examine the breeding success of Red-breasted Flycatchers in relation to nest-site characteristics and time of breeding. Methods Data were collected during seven breeding seasons under natural conditions in Bialowieza National Park. We used survival time analysis to estimate changes in survival probability over time and breeding success in relation to first-egg date and nest-site characteristics. Results Offspring fledged successfully from 51% of clutches, but the Kaplan–Meier estimate of survival was lower at 0.43. Of the unsuccessful clutches, 82% were lost to predators. The highest probability of loss was during egg-laying and in the second half of incubation. Breeding success was influenced by the height of the nest above the ground, but no relation to other nest-site characteristics was found. Conclusion To avoid predation Red-breasted Flycatchers build nests in various si...

Hatching asynchrony has been recorded in many altricial bird species. Also, more than 70% of clutches of the Red-breasted Flycatcher hatched asynchronously. The annual variation in the proportion of asynchronous clutches depended on median dates of egg laying, in the years when females started egg laying later more asynchronous clutches were observed. The females from synchronous clutches started egg laying significantly earlier than females from asynchronous clutches and were more synchronised with the peak of caterpilars. No differences in clutch size and number of fledglings between asynchronous and synchronous clutches were found. The frequency of females that started incubation earlier showed no significant difference when mated with either after-2nd-year or 2nd-year males. Also, breeding success was not significantly different between broods of various hatching types and was 87% for asynchronous clutches and 94% for synchronous clutches. The time of breeding and high predation pressure cou...

Intraspecific variation in the arrival time of migratory birds to breeding grounds is common. Although this phenomenon has been explained in various ways, the condition-dependency of arrival is often evoked. I analyzed the arrival time of male red-breasted flycatchers Ficedula parva, a long-distance migratory passerine, in relation to age, body size and body condition. Data were collected over the course of 5 years in the primeval Bialowieza Forest of northeast Poland. Each of these years, young males arrived at the breeding grounds significantly later in the year than did older males. Young males also exhibited significantly shorter wings and lower body condition than older males. Settlement speed was significantly related to age, but not to wing length or body condition. Only the arrival time of old males was related to the body mass and condition. Later arrival of young males could be explained by the lack of experience or by avoidance of both aggression and competition from older males, and both explanations are thought to conserve energy for breeding. Young male red-breasted flycatchers exhibit delayed plumage maturation, and this duller plumage supports the strategy of restraint in the arrival time of young males in this species.

Adapting to exploit new food sources may be essential, particularly in winter, when the impact of food limitation on survival of individuals is critical. One of the most important additional sources of food for birds in human settlements is birdfeeders. At a large spatial scale, we experimentally provided birdfeeders with four different kinds of food to analyze exploitation and use of a novel food supply provided by humans. Nine species started foraging at the new birdfeeders. The species that exploited the new feeders the fastest was the great tit. Use of novel food sources was faster in urban habitats and the presence of other feeders reduced the time until a new feeder was located. Urbanization may be associated with behavioural skills, technical innovations and neophilia resulting in faster discovery of new food sources. This process is accelerated by the experience of feeder use in the vicinity, with a strong modifying effect of the number of domestic cats.

The 2000–2004 results of the mapping technique censuses carried out in permanent plots situated in three types of old-growth primeval BNP stands (ash-alder riverine, oak-hornbeam, mixed coniferous) are presented and compared with data gathered in the same plots in the late 1990s. These data supplement earlier observations in the BNP and extend the long-term set of data on the breeding bird numbers there to a 30-year uninterrupted series (1975–2004). Most community parameters, such as the composition of breeding avifauna, the species richness, and the make-up and cumulative share of dominants, have remained basically unchanged. The overall bird density has increased by 8–20% in different plots; in 2001 it reached the highest level within the 30-year study period. The increase was due to parallel increases in numbers of several species, widely differing in their nesting sites, food requirements and migratory habits — during this period 14 of the 26 most numerous species attained their highest numbers in the 30-year study period. Since numbers increased simultaneously in all the plots, the density differences across habitats remained the same, from the highest densities in riverine stands at the forest edge (up to 149 p/10 ha), through oak-hornbeam stands, to the lowest densities in the coniferous stands (54–56 p/10 ha). In most cases the numerical increases could not be attributed to changes in local environmental factors, such as food resources, or to detectable changes in habitat structure. The apparent lack of a relationship between the changes in bird numbers and the local situation suggests that factors acting on a larger scale (beyond the study area) could have been involved. Despite the directional changes in bird abundance observed in the Bialowieza Forest, its breeding bird assemblage, when compared with the amplitude of changes recorded over the same period in other areas and habitats, stands out as an example of remarkable stability.

Avian territory quality can vary with the availability of good habitats, the structure of the population, the age and quality of individuals. Here, we describe the territories of the Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva in relation to male age and arrival time. In the territories of Red-breasted Flycatchers, hornbeam Carpinus betulus was the dominant live tree species and spruce Picea abies was the dominant snag (standing dead tree) species. Snags constituted 20.2% of tree stands. The density of live trees ranged from 164 to 680 indiv./ha (x = 410 ± 123.8), and density of snags ranged from 0 to 156 indiv./ha (x = 4.2 ± 22.5). Old males settled on territories earlier in the season than did young males. Living tree density and circumference of trees and snags differed between old and young males. Old males settled on territories with larger live trees, larger snags and higher living tree densities than did younger males. Male age, however, was not related to the density of snags nor to tree species compos...

nests of Red-breasted Flycatchers in Bialowieza primeval forest (NE Poland) were characterised. Most nests (79%) were built in Hornbeam Carpinus betulus and lime Tilia cordata. Three types of nest sites were distinguished: chimney shaped (26.4%), half cavities (46.4%) or shelves — the nest was wedged under a piece of bark against the main trunk (27.3%). Most cavity entrances were exposed to the south. Compared to other species of secondary cavity nesters in Bialowieza National Park, Red-breasted Flycatchers used cavities of a different shape, with a smaller bottom area and at a relatively low height above the ground (x - = 4.9 ± 3.13 m). Nesting trees had a smaller diameter (x - = 31.2 ± 21.4 cm) and were more often dead (29.8%) than trees used by the other secondary cavity nesters. Only four nest sites were used in consecutive seasons.

I compared the breeding ecology of Collared Flycatchers (Ficedula albicollis) breeding in natural and artificial nest sites in old-growth, oak-lime-hornbeam stands of the Bialowieza Forest, eastern Poland, from 1993 to 1999. There were no significant differences in laying date, clutch size, partial clutch losses, partial brood losses, or number of offspring fledged between pairs breeding in natural cavities and nest boxes; however, predation rates were significantly greater in natural cavities. Predation rates may be higher in natural cavities because, under natural conditions like that of the Bialowieza Forest, predators may lack experience with artificial nest sites. These results indicate that studies using box-nesting bird populations should be regarded with caution, especially when they involve predation or predator-prey relationships.

The breeding phenology of Collared Flycatchers was monitored for 7 years (1993 and 1995–2000) in oldgrowth, oak-lime-hornbeam stands in the primeval Bialowieza Forest. In most years, egg laying commenced in the second half of May. The earliest first-egg date (179 broods) was 1 May, the latest such date was 13 May; these dates differed from year to year. The associations between the first-egg date and the mean temperature of the last ten days of April indicated that birds were breeding earlier as a consequence of warmer April temperatures. The earliest hatching date was 21 May, the latest 1 June. Fledging usually started in the first half of June. The length of the breeding season varied from 40 to 53 days and the breeding cycle was negatively related to mean temperature in the first ten days of May.

The 1995–1999 results of the mapping technique censuses carried out in permanent plots situated in three types of old-growth primeval BNP stands (ash-alder riverine, oak-hornbeam, mixed coniferous) are presented and contrasted with the data gathered in the same plots in the late 1970s. Most community parameters, such as composition of breeding avifauna, species richness, make-up and cumulative proportion of dominants, remained basically unchanged. Only the overall bird density has increased considerably, by 13–38% in different plots. This has been due to parallel increases in numbers of several species, widely differing in their nesting sites, food requirements and migratory habits. As numbers increased simultaneously in all the plots, the density differences across habitats remained the same, from highest densities in riverine stands at the forest edge (up to 124 p/10 ha), through oak-hornbeam stands, to lowest in the coniferous stands (48–50 p/10 ha). Despite this differentiation the breeding ...

Møller, A.P. [et al.], Secondary hole-nesting birds that do not construct nest holes themselves and hence regularly breed in nest boxes constitute important model systems for field studies in many biological disciplines with hundreds of scientists and amateurs involved. Those research groups are spread over wide geographic areas that experience considerable variation in environmental conditions, and researchers provide nest boxes of varying designs that may inadvertently introduce spatial and temporal variation in reproductive parameters. We quantified the relationship between mean clutch size and nest box size and material after controlling for a range of environmental variables in four of the most widely used model species in the Western Palaearctic: great tit Parus major, blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus, pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca and collared flycatcher F. albicollis from 365 populations and 79 610 clutches. Nest floor area and nest box material varied non-randomly across latitudes and longitudes, showing that scientists did not adopt a random box design. Clutch size increased with nest floor area in great tits, but not in blue tits and flycatchers. Clutch size of blue tits was larger in wooden than in concrete nest boxes. These findings demonstrate that the size of nest boxes and material used to construct nest boxes can differentially affect clutch size in different species. The findings also suggest that the nest box design may affect not only focal species, but also indirectly other species through the effects of nest box design on productivity and therefore potentially population density and hence interspecific competition. © 2014 The Authors. Methods in Ecology and Evolution © 2014 British Ecological Society., J. Morales by the Spanish Research Council-CSIC and the European Social Fund (programme Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios).

Territoriality in Red-breasted Flycatchers was studied in the Bialowieza Forest of Eastern Poland during five consecutive breeding seasons (2000-2004). In total 99 males were individually marked, and evidence of polyterritoriality was found in 10% of them. The proportion of polyterritorial males varied from 0% (in 2003) to 13.6% (in 2001). The mean distance between the first and second territories was 278 m (± 179.37, n = 10). The rate of polyterritoriality was not related to age class, as older males defended dual territories that were, on average, not more distantly separated than those of younger males. One case of polygyny was recorded. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence for polyteritoriality and polygyny in male Red-breasted Flycatchers.