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17 pages, 2 figures, 3 tables, supporting information https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12945, Identifiable food remains were analyzed from 46 stomachs of striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) stranded in southern Spain between 2007 and 2014. Results suggest that the species feeds mainly on mesopelagic and neritic fish, but also on oceanic squids. Fish species of the family Myctophidae were the main prey in terms of numerical importance and reconstructed prey weight (62% N and 29% W), followed by squids of the family Ommastrephidae (20% W) and bogue (Boops boops) (15% W). The most important prey taxa according to the General Importance Index (GII) were C. maderensis, Ommastrephidae gen. spp., Notoscopelus spp., and M. punctatum. Higher number of mesopelagic myctophids were found in dolphins from the Mediterranean (73% vs. 29% N), while more demersal gobiids and European hake (Merluccius merluccius) were found in those from the Atlantic (44% vs. 1% and 8% vs., This work was carried out in the Oceanographic Centre of Vigo (Spanish Institute of Oceanography of the Spanish National Research Council; IEO-CSIC) partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness Demographic Challenge (MITECO) through the Commission [28-5307] for “Technical Scientific Advice for the Protection of the Marine Environment: Assessment and Monitoring of Marine Strategies, Monitoring of Marine Protected Areas of State Competence (2018–2021).” M.G.P., carried out this work while registered with the “Campus do Mar doctorate program.” J.G. was supported by the Spanish National Program “Juan de la Cierva-Formación” (FJC2019-040016-I). The contribution of J.G. and R.D.S. was partially supported by the EcoCet Project from the MITECO [CGL2011-25543] and the “Fundación Biodiversidad”, through the FEMP, Pleamar programme. [...] This work acknowledges the “Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence” accreditation (CEX2019-000928-S) to the Institute of Marine Science (ICM-CSIC)

Marine mammals have been proposed as ecosystem sentinels due to their conspicuous nature, wide ranging distribution, and capacity to respond to changes in ecosystem structure and functioning. In southern European Atlantic waters, their response to climate variability has been little explored, partly because of the inherent difficulty of investigating higher trophic levels and long lifespan animals. Here, we analyzed spatiotemporal patterns from 1994 to 2018 of one of the most abundant cetaceans in the area, the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), in order to (1) explore changes in its abundance and distribution, and (2) identify the underlying drivers. For that, we estimated the density of the species and the center of gravity of its distribution in the Bay of Biscay (BoB) and tested the effect of three sets of potential drivers (climate indices, oceanographic conditions, and prey biomasses) with a Vector Autoregressive Spatio Temporal (VAST) model that accounts for changes in sampling effort resulting from the combination of multiple datasets. Our results showed that the common dolphin significantly increased in abundance in the BoB during the study period. These changes were best explained by climate indices such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and by prey species biomass. Oceanographic variables such as chlorophyll a concentration and temperature were less useful or not related. In addition, we found high variability in the geographic center of gravity of the species within the study region, with shifts between the inner (southeast) and the outer (northwest) part of the BoB, although the majority of this variability could not be attributed to the drivers considered in the study. Overall, these findings indicate that considering temperature alone for projecting spatiotemporal patterns of highly mobile predators is insufficient in this region and suggest important influences from prey and climate indices that integrate multiple ecological influences. Further integration of existing observational datasets to understand the causes of past shifts will be important for making accurate projections into the future.

In habitat modelling, environmental variables are assumed to be proxies of lower trophic levels distribution and by extension, of marine top predator distributions. More proximal variables, such as potential prey fields, could refine relationships between top predator distributions and their environment. In situ data on prey distributions are not available over large spatial scales but, a numerical model, the Spatial Ecosystem And POpulation DYnamics Model (SEAPODYM), provides simulations of the biomass and production of zooplankton and six functional groups of micronekton at the global scale. Here, we explored whether generalised additive models fitted to simulated prey distribution data better predicted deepdiver densities (here beaked whales Ziphiidae and sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus) than models fitted to environmental variables. We assessed whether the combination of environmental and prey distribution data would further improve model fit by comparing their explanatory power. For both taxa, results were suggestive of a preference for habitats associated with topographic features and thermal fronts but also for habitats with an extended euphotic zone and with large prey of the lower mesopelagic layer. For beaked whales, no SEAPODYM variable was selected in the best model that combined the two types of variables, possibly because SEAPODYM does not accurately simulate the organisms on which beaked whales feed on. For sperm whales, the increase model performance was only marginal. SEAPODYM outputs were at best weakly correlated with sightings of deep-diving cetaceans, suggesting SEAPODYM may not accurately predict the prey fields of these taxa. This study was a first investigation and mostly highlighted the importance of the physiographic variables to understand mechanisms that influence the distribution of deep-diving cetaceans. A more systematic use of SEAPODYM could allow to better define the limits of its use and a development of the model that would simulate larger prey beyond 1,000 m would probably better characterise the prey of deep-diving cetaceans.

Species of Anisakis typically infect the stomach of cetaceans worldwide, often causing ulcerative lesions that may compromise the host’s health. These nematodes also cause anisakiasis or allergic reactions in humans. To assess the risks of this emerging zoonosis, data on long-term changes in Anisakis infections in cetaceans are necessary. Here, we compare the prevalence and severity of ulcerative lesions caused by Anisakis spp. in five cetacean species stranded along the north-west Spanish coast in 2017–2018 with published data from 1991–1996. Open ulcers were found in 32/ 43 short-beaked common dolphins, Delphinus delphis; 3/5 striped dolphins, Stenella coeruleoalba; 1/7 bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus; and 1/3 harbour porpoises, Phocoena phocoena mer- idionalis; a single individual of long-finned pilot whale, Globicephala melas, was found unin- fected. In common dolphins, the mean abundance of open ulcers per host was 1.1 (95% confidence interval: 0.8–1.3), with a maximum diameter (mean ± standard deviation) of 25.4 ± 16.9 mm. Stomachs with scars or extensive fibrosis putatively associated with Anisakis were detected in 14 and five animals, respectively. A molecular analysis based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase II gene using 18 worms from three cetacean species revealed single or mixed infections ofAnisakis simplex sensu stricto and Anisakis pegreffii. Compared with the per- iod 1991–1996, we found a strong increase of prevalence, abundance and extension of ulcerative lesions in most cetacean species. Anisakis populations could have increased in the study area over the last decades, although we cannot rule out that a higher environmental stress has also boosted the pathological effects of these parasites. En prensa

17 pages, 7 tables, 5 figures, Distribution maps of cetaceans and seabirds at basin and monthly scales are needed for conservation and marine management. These are usually created from standardized and systematic aerial and vessel surveys, with recorded animal densities interpolated across study areas. However, distribution maps at basin and monthly scales have previously not been possible because individual surveys have restricted spatial and temporal coverage. This study develops an alternative approach consisting of: (a) collating diverse survey data to maximize spatial and temporal coverage, (b) using detection functions to estimate variation in the surface area covered (km2) among these surveys, standardizing measurements of effort and animal densities, and (c) developing species distribution models (SDM) that overcome issues with heterogeneous and uneven coverage. 2.68 million km of survey data in the North‐East Atlantic between 1980 and 2018 were collated and standardized. SDM using Generalized Linear Models and General Estimating Equations in a hurdle approach were developed. Distribution maps were then created for 12 cetacean and 12 seabird species at 10 km and monthly resolution. Qualitative and quantitative assessment indicated good model performance. Synthesis and applications. This study provides the largest ever collation and standardization of diverse survey data for cetaceans and seabirds, and the most comprehensive distribution maps of these taxa in the North‐East Atlantic. These distribution maps have numerous applications including the identification of important areas needing protection, and the quantification of overlap between vulnerable species and anthropogenic activities. This study demonstrates how the analysis of existing and diverse survey data can meet conservation and marine management needs, JJW, PGHE, JGH and SW are supported through the NERC/DEFRA funded Marine Ecosystems Research Programme (MERP: NE/L003201/1).

Typically, organism-based biogeographic studies consider distribution and abundance over time on various scales. However, to be comprehensive, factors of environment and habitat, energetics, morphology, and population dynamics should also be included. In addition, these studies should consider not only the spatial extent that an individual or species occupies or can roam within, but also the space over which an animal can extract and interpret information, a less well-defined element of niche space which largely shapes its movements or distribution. Understanding the processes that inform patterns of species distribution, both intrinsic and external to the animal, is key to understanding a species’ ecology. Here, we consider the biogeography of whales, given these ideas, with a particular focus on the acoustical components of their biology and landscape. Cetaceans use of sound to communicate, navigate and forage, and so interpret the soundscape, is a central consideration. It has important implications in a changing ambient environment and will increasingly influence species’ survival.

The study of marine soundscapes is a growing field of research. Recording hardware is becoming more accessible; there are a number of off-the-shelf autonomous recorders that can be deployed for months at a time; software analysis tools exist as shareware; raw or preprocessed recordings are freely and publicly available. However, what is missing are catalogues of commonly recorded sounds. Sounds related to geophysical events (e.g. earthquakes) and weather (e.g. wind and precipitation), to human activities (e.g. ships) and to marine animals (e.g. crustaceans, fish and marine mammals) commonly occur. Marine mammals are distributed throughout Australia’s oceans and significantly contribute to the underwater soundscape. However, due to a lack of concurrent visual and passive acoustic observations, it is often not known which species produces which sounds. To aid in the analysis of Australian and Antarctic marine soundscape recordings, a literature review of the sounds made by marine mammals was undertaken. Frequency, duration and source level measurements are summarised and tabulated. In addition to the literature review, new marine mammal data are presented and include recordings from Australia of Omura’s whales (Balaenoptera omurai), dwarf sperm whales (Kogia sima), common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus), long-finned pilot whales (G. melas), Fraser’s dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei), false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) and spinner dolphins (S. longirostris), as well as the whistles and burst-pulse sounds of Australian pygmy killer whales (Feresa attenuata). To date, this is the most comprehensive acoustic summary for marine mammal species in Australian waters.

11 pages, 5 figures, 4 tables, In the last few decades, there has been a remarkable development of niche models to help understand the ecological response of species to current rapid environmental changes. In the present study, we applied niche modelling to the megafauna community of shelf waters of the northwestern (NW) and northern Iberian Peninsula in order to analyse the coexistence of different species taking into consideration their niche preferences. The Spanish Institute of Oceanography conducts the PELACUS multidisciplinary survey annually to assess pelagic fish stocks and collect information on the status of other ecosystem components, such as oceanographic conditions, phytoplankton, zooplankton and marine megafauna. Using data collected from these surveys, we developed niche models for 14 marine megafauna taxa (3 cetaceans, 10 seabirds and 1 fish) incorporating multi-trophic ecological descriptors collected simultaneously during the surveys alongside the more commonly used oceanographic variables (e.g. chlorophyll a and sea surface temperature). Megafauna niche models were developed by pooling observations from 2007 to 2013 and were found to be driven by mean fish biomass and its variability, in addition to sea surface temperature. Hierarchical clustering identified four distinct megafauna assemblages, the first comprising wide-ranging species and the other three associated with shelf-slope waters in Galicia, coastal/shelf waters in Galicia, and the eastern Cantabrian Sea, respectively. Community-level hotspot areas were found in shelf and shelf-break sectors of Galicia, along with small diversity spots scattered throughout the Cantabrian coastal area. Our results showed that synoptically collected survey-based ecological descriptors, especially acoustic-based preyscapes, were among the most important variables explaining megafauna niche preference. These findings highlight the advantage of using integrated ecosystem surveys to collect simultaneous information on a suite of ecosystem components for spatial assessments, Surveys were funded by the Instituto Español de Oceanografía's ECOPEL project, partially co-funded by the European Union Data Collection Framework program. Additional funding was contributed by the CONPELHAB (Marie Curie Career Integration Grant PCIG09-GA-2011-293774), REPRODUCE (MariFish 8120-09-9), LOTOFPEL (Plan Nacional de I+D+I, CTM 2010-16053) and CHALLENGES (CTM2013-47032-R) projects. Maite Louzao was funded by Juan de la Cierva (JCI-2010-07639) and Ramón y Cajal (RYC-2012-09897) postdoctoral contracts

Aim Deep-diving cetaceans are oceanic species exposed to multiple anthropogenic pressures including high intensity underwater noise, and knowledge of their distribution is crucial to manage their conservation. Due to intrinsic low densities, wide distribution ranges and limited presence at the sea surface, these species are rarely sighted. Pooling data from multiple visual surveys sharing a common line-transect methodology can increase sightings but requires accounting for heterogeneity in protocols and platforms. Location North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Time period 1998 to 2015. Major taxa Ziphiidae; Physeteriidae; Kogiidae. Methods About 1,240,000 km of pooled effort provided 630 sightings of ziphiids, 836 of physeteriids and 106 of kogiids. For each taxon, we built a hierarchical model to estimate the effective strip width depending on observation conditions and survey types. We then modelled relative densities in a generalized additive modelling framework. Geographical predictions were limited to interpolations identified with a gap analysis of environmental space coverage. Results Deeper areas of the North Atlantic gyre were mostly environmental extrapolation in the predictions, thereby highlighting gaps in sampling across the different surveys. For the three species groups, the highest relative densities were predicted along continental slopes, particularly in the western North Atlantic Ocean where the Gulf Stream creates dynamic frontal zones and eddies. Main conclusions Pooling a large number of surveys provided the first basin-wide models of distribution for deep-diving cetaceans, including several data-deficient taxa, across the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. These models can help the conservation of elusive and poorly known marine megafauna., SI

Less Erroneous Pictures. Whalers’ Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century Natural History, Oceanography, and Literature. This paper uses the iconoclasm of Herman Melville's Moby-Dick as a point of departure to examine the problem of representing whales pictorially. Focussing on the use of images in cetological works and whaling logbooks, the paper investigates how the whalers’ knowledge, which served the hunting, killing, and economic exploitation of whales, came to be inscribed in the antithetical work of natural historians who were increasingly interested in living organisms. This paper argues that Melville's juxtaposition of whalers’ and naturalists’ knowledge runs parallel with a dichotomy, along which natural histories, travelogues, and thematic maps of oceanography constitute the whale as an object of knowledge. It concludes by suggesting that, at the same time, this dichotomy is repeatedly undermined for the sake of the whale's representation.

Effective conservation and management measures are needed to face the unprecedented changes that marine ecosystems, and particularly marine megafauna, are suffering. These measures require the identification of highvalue biodiversity areas (HVBAs) which in turn require the identification of the essential ocean variables (EOVs) that shape the environmental envelope of communities (i.e. space defined by a set of environmental variables). The aim of this study was to delineate and characterise the HVBAs for the north and northwestern Spanish seabird and cetacean community taking advantage of the sightings collected during the annual PELACUS oceanographic survey (2007–2016). We used distance sampling methodology to analyse the species detectability based on environmental conditions. Then, we delimitated the HVBAs and identified the EOVs defining the environmental envelope of the community based on a spatio-temporal modelling approach using Generalized Additive Models. Overall, the main environmental variables driving species abundance were the sea surface temperature (SST), the distance to the shelf-break and the chlorophyll-a concentration (Chl-a). The SST and Chla were identified as dynamic EOVs due to their highest relative predictor importance, driving the environmental envelope and shaping areas of higher density. HVBAs were located mainly over the northwestern Spanish waters and decreased towards the inner Bay of Biscay remaining spatially stable over the study period. By identifying community-level HVBAs, we can understand the underlying ecological and oceanographic processes driving the spatio-temporal patterns of biological communities, such as those composed by seabirds and cetaceans. This information would identify conservation targets to assist the allocation of management resources. In addition, the location of HVBAs can help to fulfil the emergent need for sound spatial information to support the implementation of marine spatial planning., SI

The use of lethal research methods on cetaceans has a long and complicated history in cetology (the scientific study of whales, dolphins and porpoises). In the current era, collecting data through the hunting of whales (sometimes referred to as scientific whaling) remains a source of considerable conflict in various fora, including scientific ones. Based on interviews and documents, this article explores how marine mammal scientists articulate the validity of particular practices and research at both the International Whaling Commission and in professional scientific societies. Drawing on cultural theory, the article explores scientists’ boundary work, describing the purity and pollution of particular whaling practices in different institutional contexts. Respondents on either side of the debate argued for the pure or polluted nature of various positions, often utilising particular idealised values of science: objectivity, honesty and openness regarding how conclusions were drawn. The nature of boundary work performed is then related to the institutional context within which it takes place. This article thus highlights how science’s role in environmental conflicts can be assessed through boundary work that denotes who can legitimately speak for science, on what topics and how science is stage-managed.

The numerous adaptations of dolphins and whales (Cetacea) to the aquatic environment represent an amazing evolution level. Among these adaptations are specializations of the musculoskeletal, the respiratory, and the sensory systems. The anatomical research on dolphins started with the Greek philosopher Aristotele more than 2300 years ago. However, during the “dark centuries” of the Middle Ages the scientific work was completely eliminated until the German bishop Albertus Magnus recapitulated Aristotele’s work. New anatomical research was restarted during the Renaissance and Edward Tyson set new standards for cetacean anatomy in the 17th century. Today, new anatomical studies on marine mammals are often integrative, combining methods and ways of thinking largely gleaned from terrestrial animals and human medicine. This comparison of holds great promise for the understanding of modern marine mammalogy.

Most of the species from the order Cetacea appear to possess advanced cognitive abilities and close social networks and are also likely to experience different affective states comprising of more than just basic emotions. Welfare describes a balance of positive and negative affective states experienced by an individual, and this balance is a good indicator of how it perceives the surrounding environment. In this chapter, we discuss how the first steps in cetacean welfare science are being taken to establish this as a discipline. We discuss the pertinent areas of cetology that merit investigation to form the basis of possible cetacean welfare measures. In this arena of welfare assessment, much of the existing work comes from farm animal science, and this previous experience offers potential tools and techniques which could be adapted for cetaceans. We review these sources of information, make suggestions for relevant investigations and discuss how assessment of cetacean welfare might be accomplished.

There has been much research interest in the use of submarine canyons by cetaceans, particularly beaked whales (family Ziphiidae), which appear to be especially attracted to canyon habitats in some areas. However, not all submarine canyons are associated with large numbers of cetaceans and the mechanisms through which submarine canyons may attract cetaceans are not clearly understood. This paper reviews some of the cetacean associations with submarine canyons that have been anecdotally described or presented in scientific literature and discusses the physical, oceanographic and biological mechanisms that may lead to enhanced cetacean abundance around these canyons. Particular attention is paid to the Gully, a large submarine canyon and Marine Protected Area off eastern Canada for which there exists some of the strongest evidence available for submarine canyons as important cetacean habitat. Studies demonstrating increased cetacean abundance in the Gully and the processes that are likely to attract cetaceans to this relatively well-studied canyon are discussed. This review provides some limited evidence that cetaceans are more likely to associate with larger canyons; however, further studies are needed to fully understand the relationship between the physical characteristics of canyons and enhanced cetacean abundance. In general, toothed whales (especially beaked whales and sperm whales) appear to exhibit the strongest associations with submarine canyons, occurring in these features throughout the year and likely attracted by concentrating and aggregating processes. By contrast, baleen whales tend to occur in canyons seasonally and are most likely attracted to canyons by enrichment and concentrating processes. Existing evidence thus suggests that at least some submarine canyons are important foraging areas for cetaceans, and should be given special consideration for cetacean conservation and protection.

Certain populations of killer whales Orcinus orca feed primarily or exclusively on marine mammals. However, whether or not baleen whales represent an important prey source for killer whales is debatable. A hypothesis by Springer et al. (2003) suggested that overexploitation of large whales by industrial whaling forced killer whales to prey-switch from baleen whales to pin- nipeds and sea otters, resulting in population declines for these smaller marine mammals in the North Pacific and southern Bering Sea. This prey-switching hypothesis is in part contingent upon the idea that killer whales commonly attack mysticetes while they are in these high-latitude areas. In this study, we used photographic and sighting data from long-term studies of baleen whales in 24 regions worldwide to determine the proportion of whales that bear scars (rake marks) from killer whale attacks, and to examine the timing of scar acquisition. The results of this study show that there is con- siderable geographic variation in the proportion of whales with rake marks, ranging from 0% to >40% in different regions. In every region, the great majority of the scars seen were present on the whales' bodies when the animals were first sighted. Less than 7% (9 of 132) of scarred humpback whales with multi-year sighting histories acquired new scars after the first sighting. This suggests that most killer whale attacks on baleen whales target young animals, probably calves on their first migration from low-latitude breeding and calving areas to high-latitude feeding grounds. Overall, our results imply that adult baleen whales are not an important prey source for killer whales in high latitudes, and therefore that one of the primary assumptions underlying the Springer et al. (2003) prey-switching hypothesis (and its purported link to industrial whaling) is invalid.

During a combined visual and acoustic cetacean survey of the Hawaiian Islands in 2002, four midfrequency sounds were recorded in close proximity to a group of Blainville's beaked whales, Mesoplodon densirostris. These sounds included one frequency-modulated whistle, and three frequency- and amplitude-modulated pulsed sounds, with energy between 6 and 16 kHz. Until recently, little was known of the acoustic behavior of beaked whales, and early descriptions of audible sounds made by beaked whales are incomplete [Caldwell and Caldwell, Cetology 4, 1-5 (1971); Lynn and Reiss, Marine Mammal Sci. 8(3), 229-305 (1992); T. C. Poulter, "Marine mammals," in Animal Communication; Techniques of Study and Results of Research, edited by T. A. Sebeok (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1968)]. Recent recordings of high-frequency clicks (>20 kHz, [Johnson et al., Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. B (Suppl.) 271, 5383-5386 (2004); Zimmer et al., J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 117(6), 3919-3927.]) were above the frequency response of our equipment, and therefore not detected. Sound production within the midfrequency range of sounds described here suggests that the hearing of M. densirostris is sensitive at frequencies used in some types of active sonars.

Acoustic recordings of baleen whale calls were analysed for the calendar year 1997 from a pair of fixed hydrophones located 5 km east of Great Barrier Island, New Zealand. The primary goal of the study was to examine blue whale seasonally and song type as part of a larger worldwide study. Calls were recorded from blue whales of two song types, fin whales, humpback whales, Bryde's whales, and of two unknown call types, each probably produced by Bryde's whales. The peak of calling density was May through September for the blue, fin, and humpback whales. The known Bryde's whale calls occurred year‐round and the probable Bryde's whale calls occurred from May through December. Blue whale songs of a type so far known only from New Zealand waters were detected within 2 km of shore and occurred four times from June to December, whereas the Southern Ocean blue whale songs were detected only further offshore in mid‐winter. Bryde's whale calls were the most abundant type and often occurred near the hydropho...

This article publishes a fragment of a scapula of a fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) found in an Early Geometric well in the area of the later Athenian Agora. Deriving from the carcass of an immature beached whale, the bone was brought to Athens and was used probably as a cutting surface, before being discarded ca. 850 B.C. The context of this extraordinary artifact is analyzed and discussed, as are its possible functions. The occurrence of whales in the Aegean and Mediterranean is reviewed, so too the use of whales and whalebones in ancient Greece and in other cultures. Although the incidence of whalebone is rare in archaeological contexts in the Aegean, Classical literature is full of references to both fantastic sea monsters and real whales. The words that the Greeks and Romans used for whales and the language of whales in mythology and natural history reveal a rich and varied tradition. There is a similarly rich and long tradition of iconographic representations in ancient art, particularly of fabulous sea monsters, one that extends from Aegean prehistory into the Classical era and well beyond. The Agora whalebone provides a unique insight into the archaeology of whales and sea monsters in Greek literature, natural history, art, and material culture.

Humpback whales summer at high latitudes where they feed and winter at low latitudes where they aggregate for breeding. While on the breeding grounds in Hawaii, male humpbacks space themselves and "sing" the long "songs" that have fascinated scientists and poets. Female humpbacks are outnumbered by males and generally ignore or avoid singing males; however, singers often abruptly stop singing and then swim quickly toward distant nonvocalizing whales. Humpback song has usually been explained as sexual advertisement. The suggestion that song is a form of sonar has been dismissed by cetologists on the grounds that the humpback whale song does not resemble the click trains used by toothed whales for echolocation, and that the signal-to-noise ratios of echoes from humpback song are too low for detection. In this paper, we examine humpback whale song and associated behaviors in the light of modern advances in underwater sound and signal processing, buttressing our earlier conclusion that humpback whale song is a long-range sonar used by male humpbacks to locate other whales on the breeding ground. Simulations with the parabolic equation show that the acoustic environment of the breeding ground (100-500 m water depth, weak surface duct, and sandy bottom) is often excellent for sonar in the 4-5 octave band of humpback song, enabling singers to locate other pods at ranges up to 6 km. All humpback whale behaviors are consistent with the sonar model. In particular, the sonar model explains how singing males find nonvocalizing females, despite the fact that females generally ignore or avoid singers. It also explains why males hardly ever sing while in the company of females or while competing with other males for the position of primary escort. A secondary purpose of the paper is to allay a confusion in the cetology literature between specialized structures for high frequency localization and echolocation itself, which takes place in the brain. Modern sonar algorithms, which do not require click-type sources and which appear to be mimicked in more robust forms in the brains of bats, suggest that, when dealing with any cetacean, it is always more conservative to presume that echoes are being used than that they are not being used. Many cetacean vocalizations currently thought to be exclusively for communication undoubtedly also have a sonar function. An experiment is proposed to test the humpback sonar model.

Most species of baleen whales were subject to intensive overexploitation by commercial whaling in this and previous centuries, and many populations were reduced to small fractions of their original sizes. Here, we review the status of baleen whale stocks, with an emphasis on those that are known or thought to be critically endangered. Current data suggest that, of the various threats potentially affecting baleen whales, only entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes may be significant at the population level, and then only in those populations which are already at critically low abundance. The impact of some problems (vessel harassment, and commercial or aboriginal whaling) is at present probably minor. For others (contaminants, habitat degradation, disease), existing data either indicate no immediate cause for concern, or are insufficient to permit an assessment. While the prospect for many baleen whales appears good, there are notable exceptions; populations that are of greatest concern are those suffering from low abundance and associated problems, including (in some cases) anthropogenic mortality. These include: all Northern Right Whales Eubalaena glacialis, Bowhead Whales Balaena mysticetus of the Okhotsk Sea and various eastern Arctic populations, western Gray Whales Eschrichtius robustus, and probably many Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus populations. We review the status of these populations and, where known, the issues potentially affecting their recovery. Although Humpback Whales Megaptera novaeangliae and Southern Right Whales Eubalaena australis were also heavily exploited by whaling, existing data indicate strong recovery in most studied populations of these species.

Foreword. Acknowledgements. Contributors. 1. Why Whales, Why Now? Philippa Brakes Part 1: Whales in Human Cultures. 2. Impressions: Whales and Human Relationships in Myth, Tradition, and Law. Stuart Harrop 3. Whales of the Pacific Viliamu Iese and Cara Miller 4. The Journey Towards Whale Conservation in Latin America. Miguel Iniguez 5. Whales and the USA. Naomi A. Rose, Patricia A. Forkan, Kitty Block, Bernard Unti and E.C.M. Parsons 6. Whales in the Balance: To Touch or To Kill? A View of Caribbean Attitudes towards Whales. Nathalie Ward 7. The British and the Whales. Mark Peter Simmonds 8. Whales in Norway. Siri Martinsen 9. Of Whales, Whaling and Whale Watching in Japan: a Conversation. Jun Morikawa and Erich Hoyt 10. A Contemporary View of the International Whaling Commission. Richard Cowan Part 2: The Nature of Whales and Dolphins. 11. The Nature of Whales and Dolphins. Liz Slooten 12. Brain Structure and Intelligence in Cetaceans. Lori Marino 13. Communication. Paul Spong 14. Lessons from Dolphins. Toni Frohoff 15. Highly Interactive Behaviour of Inquisitive Dwarf Minke Whales. Alastair Birtles and Arnold Mangott 16. The Cultures of Whales and Dolphins. Hal Whitehead Part 3: New Insights New Challenges. 17. Whales and Dolphins on a Rapidly Changing Planet. Mark Peter Simmonds and Philippa Brakes 18. From Conservation to Protection: Charting a New Conservation Ethic for Cetaceans. Philippa Brakes and Claire Bass 19. What is it Like to be a Dolphin? Thomas I. White 20. Thinking Whales and Dolphins. Philippa Brakes and Mark Peter Simmonds Index.

Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) coda patterns from the northwestern Gulf of Mexico have been examined. Recordings were collected via a towed passive hydrophone array. Sperm whales are known to produce a characteristic ‘‘hammering’’ click. Codas are rhythmic patterns of clicks [W. A. Watkins and W. E. Schevill, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 62, 1485–1490 (1977)]. Two types of codas have been proposed: identity codas and general use or shared codas [Watkins et al., Cetology 49, 1–15 (1985)]. Identity codas are patterns that are unique to an individual for at least a few hours, and general use codas are vocalizations that seem to be shared among groups of whales. In the southeast Caribbean, it was found that 50% of the codas analyzed were made up of two patterns; therefore, it was proposed that shared codas may have a function other than individual identity [Moore et al., Mar. Mam. Sci. 9, 1–9 (1993)]. There also appears to be geographical differences in codas’ spacing and composition between the Galapagos and th...

The western South Atlantic (WSA) humpback whale population inhabits the coast of Brazil during the breeding and calving season in winter and spring. This population was depleted to near extinction by whaling in the mid-twentieth century. Despite recent signs of recovery, increasing coastal and offshore development pose potential threats to these animals. Therefore, continuous monitoring is needed to assess population status and support conservation strategies. The aim of this work was to present ship-based line-transect estimates of abundance for humpback whales in their WSA breeding ground and to investigate potential changes in population size. Two cruises surveyed the coast of Brazil during August-September in 2008 and 2012. The area surveyed in 2008 corresponded to the currently recognized population breeding area; effort in 2012 was limited due to unfavorable weather conditions. WSA humpback whale population size in 2008 was estimated at 16,410 (CV = 0.228, 95% CI = 10,563–25,495) animals. In order to compare abundance between 2008 and 2012, estimates for the area between Salvador and Cabo Frio, which were consistently covered in the two years, were computed at 15,332 (CV = 0.243, 95% CI = 9,595–24,500) and 19,429 (CV = 0.101, 95% CI = 15,958–23,654) whales, respectively. The difference in the two estimates represents an increase of 26.7% in whale numbers in a 4-year period. The estimated abundance for 2008 is considered the most robust for the WSA humpback whale population because the ship survey conducted in that year minimized bias from various sources. Results presented here indicate that in 2008, the WSA humpback whale population was at least around 60% of its estimated pre-modern whaling abundance and that it may recover to its pre-exploitation size sooner than previously estimated. Publisher PDF

American whalemen sailed out of ports on the east coast of the United States and in California from the 18(th) to early 20(th) centuries, searching for whales throughout the world's oceans. From an initial focus on sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) and right whales (Eubalaena spp.), the array of targeted whales expanded to include bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus), humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), and gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus). Extensive records of American whaling in the form of daily entries in whaling voyage logbooks contain a great deal of information about where and when the whalemen found whales. We plotted daily locations where the several species of whales were observed, both those caught and those sighted but not caught, on world maps to illustrate the spatial and temporal distribution of both American whaling activity and the whales. The patterns shown on the maps provide the basis for various inferences concerning the historical distribution of the target whales prior to and during this episode of global whaling.

Cetaceans-the whales, dolphins, and porpoises-are the taxonomically most diverse clade of aquatic mammals, with a fossil record going back at least to Middle Eocene time (52 Ma-millions of years before present) (Figure I). There are 75 to 77 living species in 1 3 or 1 4 families and two suborders: Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed whales, dolphins, and porpoises) (Rice 1984, Evans 1 987). The extinct Archaeoceti are a third suborder. Extant cetaceans are ecologically diverse; sizes range from under 2 m to over 25 m, and habitats range from shelf and surface water to abyssal settings in tropical to polar oceans; some species live in fresh water. Living species attract marked public and scientific interest, but fossils also have an important role. The excellent fossil record helps us to understand morphological transition series and homologies of struc­ tures in living taxa. A resurgence of interest in anatomy has led to pion­ eering, albeit preliminary, cladistic analyses of fossil and extant Cetacea, with pivotal input from paleontologists. [For a discussion of cladistics, see Padian et al ( 1 993) in this volume.] Although volatile and clearly needing more study, the resulting classifications provide an adequate foundation for broader studies. Cetacean constructional morphology and related aspects of paleobiology are still in their infancy. Fossil taxa are potentially

Long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas), Risso's dolphins (Grampus griseus), melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra), Cuvier's beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris), Sowerby's beaked whales (Mesoplodon bidens), northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus), sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), dwarf sperm whales (Kogia sima) and pygmy sperm whales (Kogia breviceps) make up the large community of deep-diving odontocetes occurring off the Bay of Biscay, northeast Atlantic. The ecology of these toothed cetaceans is poorly documented worldwide. The present study described their prey preferences from stomach content analysis and showed resource partitioning within the assemblage. The majority of the species appeared to be mostly teutophageous. Fish was an important food source only for the Sowerby's beaked whale and, to a lesser extent, for the long-finned pilot whale. In terms of foraging habitats inferred from prey composition, either pelagic oceanic or demersal neritic habitats were exploited by toothed whales in the Bay of Biscay, with only the long-finned pilot whale foraging in the two habitats. Finally, with more than 14,000 identified cephalopods from 39 species, the present study highlighted also the poorly known deep-sea cephalopod community off the Bay of Biscay using top predators as biological samplers.

Publisher Summary This chapter explores the baleen or whalebone whales (Mysticeti), one of the two recent (non-fossil) cetacean suborders. Modern baleen whales differ from the other suborder (toothed whales, Odontoceti), particularly in their lack of functional teeth. Instead they feed, on relatively very small marine organisms, by means of a highly specialized filter-feeding apparatus made up of baleen plates (“whalebone”) attached to the gum of the upper jaw. Other differences from toothed whales include the baleen whales' paired blowhole, symmetrical skull, and absence of ribs articulating with the sternum. Baleen whales are generally huge. The blue whale, the largest known animal, grows to more than 30 m long and weighs more than 170 tons. Like all other cetaceans, baleen whales are totally aquatic, and like most of the toothed whales, they are all marine. Many undertake very long migrations, and some are fast swimming. A few species come close to the coast at some part of their life cycle and may be seen from shore; however, much of their life is spent far from land in the deep oceans. Baleen whale females grow slightly larger than the males. Animals of the same species tend to be larger in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere.

The sperm and beaked whales are some of the largest toothed whales, but their offshore lifestyle and long dive times have made their study relatively difficult. Many beaked whale species appear externally similar and several species have only recently been identified. These whales are the basal odontocetes and diverged from the ancestral lineage c . 15–25 Ma. Beaked whales are characterized by the presence of a beak, while sperm whales were named for their spermaceti organ, a fatty structure containing oil thought to resemble semen, used in sound production. Sperm whales and some beaked whales were taken in large numbers during whaling operations in the last centuries. Much of what we know about them stems from the study of dead animals, but today live animals are also being studied at sea. Sperm and beaked whales are found in deep water in all oceans. These are some of the deepest mammalian divers, often feeding a kilometer underwater for their squid prey. However, difficulties studying such relatively shy animals mean that, except for the sperm whale, little is known of the social dynamics of most other species. Their most significant threats today are from fisheries, shipping, contaminants, and particularly increasing levels of underwater noise, especially military sonars.

This chapter looks to the earliest accounts of whale use in Western Europe, from Anglo-Saxon whalers to the natural history of Albertus Magnus. Whales could evoke fear and fascination and had done so from antiquity. Understandings of relations between humans, wolves and wilderness in the Middle Ages are based on intense negativity, fear and insecurity driven and encouraged by Christianity. Ancient Greek and Roman authors produced the earliest references to human encounters with whales. The spectacular breaching of Sperm whales, which are known to jump almost entirely out of the water, seems to fit Nearchus? description of the water displacement created by the whales. From the Old Testament to Albert the Great, traditions surrounding human perceptions of whales reveal continuity and a measure of creativity. North Atlantic communities have relied on whales to acquire tons of whale resources in one of the most inhospitable maritime realms, the furious North Atlantic.Keywords: Albertus Magnus; Christianity; classical antiquity; Europe; Greek; Middle Ages; Nearchus?; North Atlantic; Roman; whales

This appendix section of the book titled Monstrous Fishes and the Mead-Dark Sea presents the length, weight, group size and the distribution of Mysticete and Odontocete whales of North Atlantic. Whales, dolphins and porpoise belong to the Class Mammalia, Order Cetacea, with two remarkably varied suborders, namely Odontocete, the toothed whales and Mysticete, the baleen whales. Mysticete are divided into two families, Balaenidae and Balaenopteridae, while Odontocete branch into eight families, including Delphinidae, Monodontidae, Phocoenidae, Physeteridae, and Ziphiidae.Keywords: Mysticete whales; North Atlantic; Odontocete whales

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Cetaceans (whales and dolphins) are streamlined aquatic mammals that spend all their lives in water. They are all carnivorous, taking either many small prey by bulk filter-feeding (Mysticeti, baleen whales), or larger prey by echolocation-assisted hunting (Odontoceti, dolphins and toothed whales). The main living groups, Mysticeti and Odontoceti, arose from archaic whales – Archaeoceti – some 35 Mya. Cetaceans have been distinct for more than 50 My. Their closest relatives are the hoofed mammals, artiodactyls, such as hippos and cows. Cetaceans include the largest living animals, and range through all oceans and into some rivers. Their active aquatic lifestyle makes them difficult to study. Developments in electronic data-gathering, tissue analyses, genetic sequencing and phylogenetic analyses, and discoveries of new fossils, have hugely expanded recent understanding. Most of the diversity of living cetaceans (currently 87 species) is concentrated in the oceanic dolphins – Delphinidae (36 species), Ziphiidae (beaked whales, 21 species) and Balaenopteridae (rorquals, 8 species). Key Concepts: Cetaceans form a monophyletic group of marine mammals, with three divisions: the living mysticetes (filter-feeders), odontocetes (echolocators) and the extinct archaeocetes. Currently, 87 species are recognised: 14 mysticetes (baleen whales) and 73 odontocetes (dolphins, porpoises and toothed whales). Cetaceans are difficult to study because of their habits, size and rarity, so that, in terms of conservation status, many species are data-deficient and of uncertain population trend. As a group, cetaceans range through all oceans, and into some estuaries and rivers; individual species tend to be regionally or hemispherically restricted. Molecular (genetic) studies of phylogeny will continue to change concepts of relationships, leading to revised classifications at species and genus level. The earliest known fossil cetaceans lived more than 50 Mya, in what is now India and Pakistan. Cetaceans are related closely to hoofed mammals (artiodactyls), particularly the hippopotamus. Keywords: whale; dolphin; marine mammal; distribution; fossil; adaptation; artiodactyls

Long-lived, slow to reproduce, and often hidden beneath the water's surface, whales and dolphins (cetaceans) have remained elusive subjects for scientific study even though they have fascinated humans for centuries. Until recently, much of what we knew about cetaceans came from commercial sources such as whalers and trainers for dolphin acts. Innovative research methods and persistent efforts, however, have begun to penetrate the depths to reveal tantalizing glimpses of the lives of these mammals in their natural habitats. This book presents a comprehensive synthesis and review of these studies. Groups of chapters focus on the history of cetacean behavioural research and methodology; state-of-the-art reviews of information on four of the most-studied species: bottlenose dolphins, killer whales, sperm whales and humpback whales; and summaries of major topics, including group living, male and female reproductive strategies, communication, and conservation drawn from comparative research on a wide range of species. Written by cetacean scientists, this volume should be of benefit to students of cetology and researchers in other areas of behavioral and conservation ecology, as well as anyone with a serious interest in the world of whales and dolphins.

Paul Thompson and colleagues published one of the first long‐term studies of mysticete sounds [Thompson and Freidl, Cetology 45, 1–19 (1982)]. Thompson analyzed sounds manually, finding and tallying vocalizations to arrive at a view of seasonal occurrence. Today the detection and counting tasks are often done by computer, using various methods for pattern recognition. Here we examine and compare three such methods for detecting the sounds blue whales: matched filtering, which may work well because of the stereotypy of blue whale vocalizations; spectrogram correlation, which may work well for the same reason and also because of the noise removal that can be done with it; and a neural network, which has worked well in other contexts for detecting right whale calls. The methods are configured using optimization procedures specialized for each method, and the results are compared for vocalizations recorded at different signal‐to‐noise ratios. The optimized detectors are applied to SOSUS data to detect sounds characteristic of blues whales in the northeast Pacific.