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The tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean (IO) is expected to be a significant source of water-soluble organic aerosols (WSOAs), which are important factors relevant to cloud formation of aerosol particles. Current atmospheric numerical models significantly underestimate the budget of organic aerosols and their precursors, especially over tropical oceans. This is primarily due to poor knowledge of sources and the paucity of observations of these parameters considering spatial and temporal variation over the tropical open ocean. To evaluate the contribution of sources to WSOA as well as their formation processes, submicrometer aerosol sampling was conducted at the high-altitude Maïdo observatory (21.1∘ S, 55.4∘ E; 2160 m a.s.l.), located on the remote island of La Réunion in the southwest IO. The aerosol samples were continuously collected during local daytime and nighttime, which corresponded to the ambient conditions of the marine boundary layer (MBL) and free troposphere (FT), respectively, from 15 March to 24 May 2018. Chemical analysis showed that organic matter was the dominant component of submicrometer water-soluble aerosol (∼ 45 ± 17 %) during the wet season (15 March–23 April). On the other hand, sulfate dominated (∼ 77 ± 17 %) during the dry season (24 April–24 May), most of which was attributable to the effect of volcanic eruption. Measurements of the stable carbon isotope ratio of water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) suggested that marine sources contributed significantly to the observed WSOC mass in both the MBL and the FT in the wet season, whereas a mixture of marine and terrestrial sources contributed to WSOC in the dry season. The distinct seasonal changes in the dominant source of WSOC were also supported by Lagrangian trajectory analysis. Positive matrix factorization analysis suggested that marine secondary organic aerosol (OA) dominantly contributed to the observed WSOC mass (∼ 70 %) during the wet season, whereas mixtures of marine and terrestrial sources contributed during the dry season in both MBL and FT. Overall, this study demonstrates that the effect of marine secondary sources is likely important up to the FT in the wet season, which may affect cloud formation as well as direct radiative forcing over oceanic regions.

International audience; The estimation of tropospheric gradients in GNSS data processing is a well-known technique to improve positioning precision.To study the correlation between the tropospheric gradients and the topography, we computed Zenith Wet Delay (ZWD) and tropospheric gradients using the GIPSY-OASIS II SOFTWARE from 2 years of GPS observations recorded at 52 worldwide permanent stations, focusing on regions with significant relief. We observe that gradient directions are stable over time and point towards the relief for most of the considered stations. Based on these results, we discuss the physical meaning of the tropospheric horizontal gradients and we investigate why gradients have this particular direction for stations located nearby high mountains. The GPS stations were selected and classified into four main categories: stations close to a mountain range or an isolated mountain (class 1 and 2), stations surrounded by isolated mountains in several directions or in all directions (class 3 and 4). The correlation between the gradient direction and their magnitude with respect to mountain slopes was analysed. A very clear correlation appears for stations of classes 1 and 2 whereas no correlation is obvious for stations of classes 3 and 4. For 89% of stations in classes 1 and 2, a relevant correlation appears, varying between 0.4 and 1. For 64% of stations in classes 1 and 2, a relevant correlation appears, varying between 0.6 and 1. Horizontal gradients estimation show very significant amplitude and a stable direction all along the year, this main direction is most of the time pointing towards the direction of mountains. This behaviour can be explained by a vertical shift of the tropospheric layer due to the presence of mountains, close to the station and up to the maximum distance of 60 km from the station. This orientation does not seem to depend on seasons because no annual or bimonthly means variations appear for all stations. Moreover diurnal variations do not appear on the spatial distribution of the gradients and results are similar for neighbouring stations, separated by few km, which show that local effects such as multipath propagation have influence.

This paper reports results from an inter-comparison effort involving water vapor and temperature sensors, which took place in the North-Western Mediterranean in the period September–November 2012 in the framework of the first Special Observing Period of the Hydrological cycle in the Mediterranean Experiment. The involved sensors are the ground-based Raman lidars BASIL and WALI, the airborne water vapor differential absorption lidar LEANDRE 2, flying onboard the ATR42 aircraft, as well as additional water vapor and temperature sensors (radiosondes, aircraft in situ sensors, and a microwave radiometer). The main objective of the inter-comparison is the determination of the measurement uncertainty affecting these sensors. The effort benefitted from dedicated ATR42 flights in the framework of the EUropean Facility for Airborne Research (EUFAR) Project “WaLiTemp.” Comparisons between BASIL and LEANDRE 2 in terms of water vapor mixing ratio indicate a vertically averaged mean bias, $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ , and mean absolute bias, $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ , between the two sensors of − 0.08 g kg−1 (or − 2.50%) and 0.67 g kg−1 (or 2.77%), respectively. For all sensors’ pairs including LEANDRE 2, the inter-comparison range is 0.5–3 km, while for all other sensors’ pairs, the inter-comparison range is 0.5–6 km. Comparisons between BASIL and the microwave radiometer indicate $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values between the two sensors of − 0.02 g kg−1 (or − 1.11%) and 0.22 g kg−1 (or 7.31%), respectively, for water vapor mixing ratio measurements, and a value for both $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ of 0.62 K for temperature measurements. Comparisons of BASIL with the radiosondes indicate $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values of 0.28 g kg−1 (or 1.56%) and 0.51 g kg−1 (or 6.66%), respectively, for water vapor mixing ratio measurements, and − 0.43 K and 0.77 K, respectively, for temperature measurements, while comparisons of BASIL with aircraft in situ sensors indicate $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values of 0.22 g kg−1 (or 1.17%) and 0.43 g kg−1 (or 4.62%), respectively, for water vapor mixing ratio measurements, and 0.15 K and 0.47 K, respectively, for temperature measurements. Comparisons of LEANDRE 2 with the radiosondes result in $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values of 0.21 g kg−1 (or 0.76%) and 1.10 g kg−1 (or 11.05%), respectively, while comparisons of LEANDRE 2 with the aircraft in situ sensors indicate a value of both $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ of 0.76 g kg−1 (or 8.9%). Comparisons of in situ sensors with the radiosondes reveal $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values of 0.36 g kg−1 (or 2.26%) and 0.36 g kg−1 (or 4.72%), respectively, for water vapor mixing ratio measurements, and 0.61 K and 0.62 K, respectively, for temperature measurements, while comparisons of in situ sensors with the microwave radiometer indicate $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values of − 0.37 g kg−1 (or − 2.01%) and 0.58 g kg−1 (or 12.59%), respectively, for water vapor mixing ratio measurements, and a value of both $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ of 0.75 K for temperature measurements. Comparisons of the microwave radiometer with the radiosondes indicate $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values of 0.13 g kg−1 (or 0.83%) and 0.20 g kg−1 (or 17.75%), respectively, for water vapor mixing ratio, and a value of both $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ of 0.74 K for temperature measurements. Our attention was also focused on the water vapor inter-comparison between BASIL and the transportable ground-based Raman lidar WALI, which took place in Candillargues on 30 October 2012, with results indicating $$ \overline{\mathrm{bias}} $$ bias ¯ and $$ \left|\overline{\mathrm{bias}}\right| $$ bias ¯ values between the two sensors of − 0.005 g kg−1 (or − 1.31%) and 0.24 g kg−1 (or 4.32%), respectively. Based on the available dataset and benefiting from the circumstance that BASIL could be compared with all other sensors, the overall bias of all sensors was also estimated. For water vapor mixing ratio measurements, the overall bias is 0.0079 g kg−1, 0.159 g kg−1, 0.084 g kg−1, − 0.201 g kg−1, 0.099 g kg−1, and − 0.141 g kg−1 for BASIL, LEANDRE 2, WALI, the radiosondes, the microwave radiometer, and the aircraft in situ sensor, respectively, being within ± 0.02 g kg−1 for all water vapor sensors. For temperature measurements, the overall bias is 0.11 K, 0.54 K, − 0.04 K, and − 0.51 K for BASIL, the radiosondes, the microwave radiometer, and the aircraft in situ sensor, respectively.

The Fires, Asian, and Stratospheric Transport-Las Vegas Ozone Study (FAST-LVOS) was conducted in May and June of 2017 to study the transport of ozone (O3) to Clark County, Nevada, a marginal non-attainment area in the Southwestern U.S. (SWUS). This 6-week (20 May–30 June 2017) field campaign used lidar, ozonesonde, aircraft, and in-situ measurements in conjunction with a variety of models to characterize the distribution of O3 and related species above southern Nevada and neighbouring California, and to probe the influence of stratospheric intrusions, wildfires, and local, regional, and Asian pollution on surface O3 concentrations in Las Vegas and the surrounding area. In this paper, we describe the FAST-LVOS campaign and present case studies illustrating the influence of different transport processes on background O3 and air quality attainment in the SWUS. The measurements found elevated O3 layers above Las Vegas on more than 75 % (35 of 45) of the sample days, and show that entrainment of these layers contributed to mean 8-h average background O3 concentrations of 50–55 parts-per-billion by volume (ppbv) across southern Nevada. These background concentrations constitute 70–80 % of the current U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 70 ppbv, and illustrate some of the challenges facing air quality managers tasked with O3 attainment in the SWUS during late spring and early summer. The companion paper by Zhang et al. (2020) describes the use of the AM4 and GEOS-Chem global models to estimate the impacts of transported O3 on surface air quality in the Southwestern U.S. and Intermountain West during the FAST-LVOS campaign.

We present here the results obtained during an intensive field campaign conducted in the framework of the French “BIO-MAÏDO” (Bio-physico-chemistry of tropical clouds at Maïdo (Réunion Island): processes and impacts on secondary organic aerosols’ formation) project. This study integrates an exhaustive chemical and microphysical characterization of cloud water obtained in March–April 2019 at Reunion Island (Indian Ocean). Fourteen cloud samples have been collected along the slope of this mountainous island. A comprehensive chemical characterization of these samples is performed, including inorganic ions, metals, oxidants, and organic matter (organic acids, sugars, amino acids, carbonyls, and low-soluble volatile organic compounds (VOCs)). Cloud water presents high molecular complexity with elevated water-soluble organic matter content partly modulated by microphysical cloud properties. As expected, our findings show the presence of compounds of marine origin in cloud water samples (e.g., chloride, sodium) demonstrating ocean–cloud exchanges. However, the non-sea salt fraction of sulphate varies between 38 and 91 %, indicating the presence of other sources. Also, the presence of amino acids and for the first time in cloud waters of sugars, clearly indicates that biological activities contribute to the cloud water chemical composition. A significant variability between events is observed in the dissolved organic content (25.5 ± 18.4 mgC L−1), with levels reaching up to 62 mgC L−1. This variability was not similar for all the measured compounds, suggesting the presence of dissimilar emission sources or production mechanisms. For that, a statistical analysis is performed based on back-trajectory calculations using the CAT (Computing Atmospheric Trajectory Tool) model associated with land cover registry. These investigations reveal that air mass origins and microphysical variables do not fully explain the variability observed in cloud chemical composition, highlighting the complexity of emission sources, multiphasic transfer, and chemical processing in clouds. Additionally, several VOCs (oxygenated and low-soluble VOCs) were analysed in both gas and aqueous phases. Significant levels of biogenic low-soluble VOCs were detected in the aqueous phase, indicating the cloud-terrestrial vegetation exchange. Cloud scavenging of VOCs is assessed and compared to Henry’s law equilibrium to evaluate potential super or sub saturation conditions. The evaluation reveals the supersaturation of low-soluble VOCs from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Our results depict even higher supersaturation of terpenoids, suggesting their importance in the aqueous phase chemistry in highly impacted tropical areas.

Les ressources disponibles limitent nécessairement la technologie pouvant être déployée durablement dans un contexte (un environnement à un moment donné). Le projet CoDEC s'attaque de façon volontairement radicale à la question de l'intégration pérenne d'un régime technologique low-tech dans un contexte donné, en élaborant une méthodologie de Design Energétique Contextuel. Tout d'abord, il sera question de dresser le bilan des ressources strictement disponibles dans un contexte via la quantification des flux éMergétiques (avec un M-conceptualisés par H.T. Odum). En parallèle, La question de l'énergie électrique étant centrale, et conscient des influences entre technologie et tissu social, un prototype low-tech modèle (générateur thermoélectrique solaire) sera co-développé avec une association. Enfin, en nous inspirant de la démarche critique low-tech et de la démarche d'intégration et design de la Permaculture, nous étudierons ensuite les critères d'intégration de cette low-tech dans un environnement type au potentiel éMergétique fixé.

International audience; In November 2016, a 95 GHz cloud radar was permanently deployed in Reunion Island to investigate the vertical distribution of tropical clouds and monitor the temporal variability of cloudiness in the frame of the pan-European research infrastructure Aerosol, Clouds and Trace gases Research InfraStructure (ACTRIS). In the present study, reflectivity observations collected during the two first years of operation (2016–2018) of this vertically pointing cloud radar are relied upon to investigate the diurnal and seasonal cycle of cloudiness in the northern part of this island. During the wet season (December–March), cloudiness is particularly pronounced between 1–3 km above sea level (with a frequency of cloud occurrence of 45% between 12:00–19:00 LST) and 8–12 km (with a frequency of cloud occurrence of 15% between 14:00–19:00 LST). During the dry season (June–September), this bimodal vertical mode is no longer observed and the vertical cloud extension is essentially limited to a height of 3 km due to both the drop-in humidity resulting from the northward migration of the ITCZ and the capping effect of the trade winds inversion. The frequency of cloud occurrence is at its maximum between 13:00–18:00 LST, with a probability of 35% at 15 LST near an altitude of 2 km. The analysis of global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-derived weather data also shows that the diurnal cycle of low- (1–3 km) and mid-to-high level (5–10 km) clouds is strongly correlated with the diurnal evolution of tropospheric humidity, suggesting that additional moisture is advected towards the island by the sea breeze regime. The detailed analysis of cloudiness observations collected during the four seasons sampled in 2017 and 2018 also shows substantial differences between the two years, possibly associated with a strong positive Indian Ocean Southern Dipole (IOSD) event extending throughout the year 2017.

International audience; The ReNovRisk-Cyclone program aimed at developing an observation network in the south-west Indian ocean (SWIO) in close synergy with the implementation of numerical tools to model and analyze the impacts of tropical cyclones (TC) in the present and in a context of climate change. This paper addresses the modeling part of the program. First, a unique coupled system to simulate TCs in the SWIO is developed. The ocean–wave–atmosphere coupling is considered along with a coherent coupling between sea surface state, wind field, aerosol, microphysics, and radiation. This coupled system is illustrated through several simulations of TCs: the impact of air–sea flux parameterizations on the evolution of TC Fantala is examined, the full coupling developed during the program is illustrated on TC Idai, and the potential of novel observations like space-borne synthetic aperture radar and sea turtles to validate the atmosphere and ocean models is presented with TC Herold. Secondly, the evolution of cyclonic activity in the SWIO during the second half of the 21st century is assessed. It was addressed both using climate simulation and through the implementation of a pseudo global warming method in the high-resolution coupled modeling platform. Our results suggest that the Mascarene Archipelago should experience an increase of TC related hazards in the medium term.

A set of numerical simulations is relied upon to evaluate the impact of air-sea interactions on the behaviour of tropical cyclone (TC) Bejisa (2014), using various configurations of the coupled ocean-atmosphere numerical system Meso-NH-NEMO. Uncoupled (SST constant) as well as 1D (use of a 1D ocean mixed layer) and 3D (full 3D ocean) coupled experiments are conducted to evaluate the impact of the oceanic response and dynamic processes, with emphasis on the simulated structure and intensity of TC Bejisa. Although the three experiments are shown to properly capture the track of the tropical cyclone, the intensity and the spatial distribution of the sea surface cooling show strong differences from one coupled experiment to another. In the 1D experiment, sea surface cooling (∼1 ∘C) is reduced by a factor 2 with respect to observations and appears restricted to the depth of the ocean mixed layer. Cooling is maximized along the right-hand side of the TC track, in apparent disagreement with satellite-derived sea surface temperature observations. In the 3D experiment, surface cooling of up to 2.5 ∘C is simulated along the left hand side of the TC track, which shows more consistency with observations both in terms of intensity and spatial structure. In-depth cooling is also shown to extend to a much deeper depth, with a secondary maximum of nearly 1.5 ∘C simulated near 250 m. With respect to the uncoupled experiment, heat fluxes are reduced from about 20% in both 1D and 3D coupling configurations. The tropical cyclone intensity in terms of occurrence of 10-m TC wind is globally reduced in both cases by about 10%. 3D-coupling tends to asymmetrize winds aloft with little impact on intensity but rather a modification of the secondary circulation, resulting in a slight change in structure.

International audience; The international research program “ReNovRisk-CYCLONE” (RNR-CYC, 2017–2021) directly involves 20 partners from 5 countries of the south-west Indian-Ocean. It aims at improving the observation and modelling of tropical cyclones in the south-west Indian Ocean, as well as to foster regional cooperation and improve public policies adapted to present and future tropical cyclones risk in this cyclonic basin. This paper describes the structure and main objectives of this ambitious research project, with emphasis on its observing components, which allowed integrating numbers of innovative atmospheric and oceanic observations (sea-turtle borne and seismic data, unmanned airborne system, ocean gliders), as well as combining standard and original methods (radiosoundings and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) atmospheric soundings, seismic and in-situ swell sampling, drone and satellite imaging) to support research on tropical cyclones from the local to the basin-scale.

The aim of this study is to enhance our understanding about the microphysical structure of convective cloud systems and its relationships to the ambient electrical field, and to assess the capability of a model to capture the cloud electrical properties. This study relies on the EXAEDRE (EXploiting new Atmospheric Electricity Data for Research and the Environment) aircraft campaign that took place from 13 September to 8 October 2018 in Corsica Island. Eight electrified convective systems were successfully sampled during the campaign by the French Falcon 20 aircraft (e.g. RASTA Doppler cloud radar, microphysics probes, electric field mills) and ground-based platforms (Lightning Mapping Array network, Météorage operational lightning locating system and Météo-France weather radars). In this study, a multi-cell thunderstorm which developed over the complex topography of Corsica Island on 17 September 2018 was selected to investigate and to understand the physical processes linking lightning occurrence, electrification efficiency, cloud microphysics and dynamics. The detailed analysis results using the unprecedented airborne and ground-based dataset and their comparison to the numerical simulation results with a horizontal grid spacing of 1 km comprising the explicit electrical scheme CELLS (Cloud Electrification and Lightning Scheme) implemented in the cloud resolving model Meso-NH has been conducted. The key results will be presented at the conference.

International audience; A nascent in situ cirrus was observed on January 11, 2019 in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) over the southwestern Indian Ocean, with the use of balloon-borne instruments. Data from cryogenic frost point hygrometer (CFH) and Compact Optical Backscatter and AerosoL Detector (COBALD) instruments were used to characterize the cirrus and its environment. Optical modeling was employed to estimate the cirrus microphysical properties from the COBALD backscatter measurements. Newly fomed ice crystals with radius

International audience; Volcanic eruptions can cause damage to land and people living nearby, generate high concentrations of toxic gases, and also create large plumes that limit observations and the performance of forecasting models that rely on these observations. This study investigates the use of micro- to meso-scale simulation to represent and predict the convection, transport, and deposit of volcanic pollutants. The case under study is the 2007 eruption of the Piton de la Fournaise, simulated using a high-resolution, coupled lava/atmospheric approach (derived from wildfire/atmosphere coupled code) to account for the strong, localized heat and gaseous fluxes occurring near the vent, over the lava flow, and at the lava–sea interface. Higher resolution requires fluxes over the lava flow to be explicitly simulated to account for the induced convection over the flow, local mixing, and dilution. Comparisons with air quality values at local stations show that the simulation is in good agreement with observations in terms of sulfur concentration and dynamics, and performs better than lower resolution simulation with parameterized surface fluxes. In particular, the explicit representation of the thermal flows associated with lava allows the associated thermal breezes to be represented. This local modification of the wind flow strongly impacts the organization of the volcanic convection (injection height) and the regional transport of the sulfur dioxide emitted at the vent. These results show that explicitly solving volcanic activity/atmosphere complex interactions provides realistic forecasts of induced pollution.

International audience; Abstract. Between December 2005 and 2013, the In-service Aircraft for a Global Observing System (IAGOS) program produced almost daily in situ measurements of CO and O3 between Europe and southern Africa. IAGOS data combined with measurements from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) instrument aboard the Metop-A satellite (2008–2013) are used to characterize meridional distributions and seasonality of CO and O3 in the African upper troposphere (UT). The FLEXPART particle dispersion model and the SOFT-IO model which combines the FLEXPART model with CO emission inventories are used to explore the sources and origins of the observed transects of CO and O3. We focus our analysis on two main seasons: December to March (DJFM) and June to October (JJASO). These seasons have been defined according to the position of Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), determined using in situ measurements from IAGOS. During both seasons, the UT CO meridional transects are characterized by maximum mixing ratios located 10∘ from the position of the ITCZ above the dry regions inside the hemisphere of the strongest Hadley cell (132 to 165 ppb at 0–5∘ N in DJFM and 128 to 149 ppb at 3–7∘ S in JJASO) and decreasing values southward and northward. The O3 meridional transects are characterized by mixing ratio minima of ∼42–54 ppb at the ITCZ (10–16∘ S in DJFM and 5–8∘ N in JJASO) framed by local maxima (∼53–71 ppb) coincident with the wind shear zones north and south of the ITCZ. O3 gradients are strongest in the hemisphere of the strongest Hadley cell. IASI UT O3 distributions in DJFM have revealed that the maxima are a part of a crescent-shaped O3 plume above the Atlantic Ocean around the Gulf of Guinea. CO emitted at the surface is transported towards the ITCZ by the trade winds and then convectively uplifted. Once in the upper troposphere, CO-enriched air masses are transported away from the ITCZ by the upper branches of the Hadley cells and accumulate within the zonal wind shear zones where the maximum CO mixing ratios are found. Anthropogenic and fires both contribute, by the same order of magnitude, to the CO budget of the African upper troposphere. Local fires have the highest contribution and drive the location of the observed UT CO maxima. Anthropogenic CO contribution is mostly from Africa during the entire year, with a low seasonal variability. There is also a large contribution from Asia in JJASO related to the fast convective uplift of polluted air masses in the Asian monsoon region which are further westward transported by the tropical easterly jet (TEJ) and the Asian monsoon anticyclone (AMA). O3 minima correspond to air masses that were recently uplifted from the surface where mixing ratios are low at the ITCZ. The O3 maxima correspond to old high-altitude air masses uplifted from either local or long-distance area of high O3 precursor emissions (Africa and South America during all the year, South Asia mainly in JJASO) and must be created during transport by photochemistry.

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is commonly accepted as a key precursor for atmospheric new particle formation (NPF). However, direct measurements of [H2SO4] remain challenging, thereby preventing the determination of this important quantity, and, consequently, a complete understanding of its contribution to the NPF process. Several proxies have been developed to bridge the gaps, but their ability to predict [H2SO4] under very specific conditions, such as those encountered in volcanic plumes (including, in particular, high sulfur dioxide mixing ratios), has not been evaluated so far. In this context, the main objective of the present study was to develop new proxies for daytime [H2SO4] under volcanic plume conditions and compare their performance to that of the proxies available in the literature. Specifically, the data collected at Maïdo during the OCTAVE (Oxygenated organic Compounds in the Tropical Atmosphere: variability and atmosphere–biosphere Exchanges) 2018 campaign, in the volcanic eruption plume of the Piton de la Fournaise, were first used to derive seven proxies based on knowledge of the sulfur dioxide (SO2) mixing ratio, global radiation, condensation sink (CS) and relative humidity (RH). A specific combination of some or all of these variables was tested in each of the seven proxies. In three of them (F1–F3), all considered variables were given equal weight in the prediction of [H2SO4], whereas adjusted powers were allowed (and determined during the fitting procedure) for the different variables in the other four proxies (A1–A4). Overall, proxies A1–A4 were found to perform better than proxies F1–F3, with, in particular, improved predictive ability for [H2SO4] > 2 × 108 cm−3. The CS was observed to play an important role in regulating [H2SO4], whereas the inclusion of RH did not improve the predictions. A last expression accounting for an additional sink term related to cluster formation, S1, was also tested and showed a very good predictive ability over the whole range of measured [H2SO4]. In a second step, the newly developed proxies were further evaluated using airborne measurements performed in the passive degassing plume of Etna during the STRAP (Synergie Transdisciplinaire pour Répondre aux Aléas liés aux Panaches volcaniques) 2016 campaign. Increased correlations between observed and predicted [H2SO4] were obtained when the dependence of predicted [H2SO4] on the CS was the lowest and when the dependence on [SO2] was concurrently the highest. The best predictions were finally retrieved by the simple formulation of F2 (in which [SO2] and radiation alone were assumed to explain the variations in [H2SO4] with equal contributions), with a pre-factor adapted to the STRAP data. All in all, our results illustrate the fairly good capacity of the proxies available in the literature to describe [H2SO4] under volcanic plume conditions, but they concurrently highlight the benefit of the newly developed proxies for the prediction of the highest concentrations ([H2SO4] > 2–3 × 108 cm−3). Moreover, the contrasting behaviours of the new proxies in the two investigated datasets indicate that in volcanic plumes, like in other environments, the relevance of a proxy can be affected by changes in environmental conditions and that location-specific coefficients do logically improve the predictions.

International audience; This paper reports on consolidated ground-based validation results of the atmospheric NO2 data produced operationally since April 2018 by the TROPOMI instrument on board of the ESA/EU Copernicus Sentinel-5 Precursor (S5p) satellite. Tropospheric, stratospheric, and total NO2 column data from S5p are compared to correlative measurements collected from, respectively, 19 Multi-Axis DOAS (MAX-DOAS), 26 NDACC Zenith-Scattered-Light DOAS (ZSL-DOAS), and 25 PGN/Pandora instruments distributed globally. The validation methodology gives special care to minimizing mismatch errors due to imperfect spatio-temporal co-location of the satellite and correlative data, e.g., by using tailored observation operators to account for differences in smoothing and in sampling of atmospheric structures and variability, and photochemical modelling to reduce diurnal cycle effects. Compared to the ground-based measurements, S5p data show, on an average: (i) a negative bias for the tropospheric column data, of typically −23 to −37 % in clean to slightly polluted conditions, but reaching values as high as −51 % over highly polluted areas; (ii) a slight negative bias for the stratospheric column data, of about −0.2 Pmolec/cm2, i.e. approx. −2 % in summer to −15 % in winter; and (iii) a bias ranging from zero to −50 % for the total column data, found to depend on the amplitude of the total NO2 column, with small to slightly positive bias values for columns below 6 Pmolec/cm2 and negative values above. The dispersion between S5p and correlative measurements contains mostly random components, which remain within mission requirements for the stratospheric column data (0.5 Pmolec/cm2), but exceed those for the tropospheric column data (0.7 Pmolec/cm2). While a part of the biases and dispersion may be due to representativeness differences, it is known that errors in the S5p tropospheric columns exist due to shortcomings in the (horizontally coarse) a-priori profile representation in the TM5-MP chemistry transport model used in the S5p retrieval, and to a lesser extent, to the treatment of cloud effects. Although considerable differences (up to 2 Pmolec/cm2 and more) are observed at single ground-pixel level, the near-real-time (NRTI) and off-line (OFFL) versions of the S5p NO2 operational data processor provide similar NO2 column values and validation results when globally averaged, with the NRTI values being on average 0.79 % larger than the OFFL values.

The TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) onboard the Sentinel-5 Precursor (S5P) satellite was launched on 13 October 2017 to provide the atmospheric composition for atmosphere and climate research. The S5P is a Sun-synchronous polar-orbiting satellite providing global daily coverage. The TROPOMI swath is 2600 km wide, and the ground resolution for most data products is 7.2×3.5 km2 (5.6×3.5 km2 since 6 August 2019) at nadir. The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) is responsible for the development of the TROPOMI UV algorithm and the processing of the TROPOMI surface ultraviolet (UV) radiation product which includes 36 UV parameters in total. Ground-based data from 25 sites located in arctic, subarctic, temperate, equatorial and Antarctic areas were used for validation of the TROPOMI overpass irradiance at 305, 310, 324 and 380 nm, overpass erythemally weighted dose rate/UV index, and erythemally weighted daily dose for the period from 1 January 2018 to 31 August 2019. The validation results showed that for most sites 60 %–80 % of TROPOMI data was within ±20 % of ground-based data for snow-free surface conditions. The median relative differences to ground-based measurements of TROPOMI snow-free surface daily doses were within ±10 % and ±5 % at two-thirds and at half of the sites, respectively. At several sites more than 90 % of cloud-free TROPOMI data was within ±20 % of ground-based measurements. Generally median relative differences between TROPOMI data and ground-based measurements were a little biased towards negative values (i.e. satellite data < ground-based measurement), but at high latitudes where non-homogeneous topography and albedo or snow conditions occurred, the negative bias was exceptionally high: from −30 % to −65 %. Positive biases of 10 %–15 % were also found for mountainous sites due to challenging topography. The TROPOMI surface UV radiation product includes quality flags to detect increased uncertainties in the data due to heterogeneous surface albedo and rough terrain, which can be used to filter the data retrieved under challenging conditions.

Due to their accuracy and low cost, ground-based GNSS station remain to date the main means of observing water vapour at all space-time scales. This greenhouse gas significantly modulates deep convection in tropical regions. It leads to extreme phenomena such as droughts, floods and tropical cyclones, to which the southern Indian Ocean basin is particularly vulnerable. This thesis deals with the exploitation of GNSS water vapour measurements collected in the Indian Ocean by a set of stations of the IGS global network and the IOGA4MET network. The later has been recently deployed in the framework of the ReNovRisk-Cyclones and Climate Change research programme. The first part of this thesis recalls the calculation method of the integrated water vapour column by GNSS and presents an intercomparison between the measurements obtained by the IGS network stations and various other sensors (microwave satellites, radiosondes) available in the southern Indian Ocean basin. These measurements are then used in a second step to study the variability of water vapour at different space-time scales. The results obtained show that the annual variability is highly variable on a regional scale and even stronger the further away from the equator. On a smaller scale, the diurnal water vapour cycle appears to be strongly driven by interactions between large-scale atmospheric dynamics and local circulations. This is particularly the case for tropical islands such as Madagascar and Reunion.; Les stations GNSS terrestres, du fait de leur précision et de leur faible coût, restent à ce jour le principal moyen d'observation de la vapeur d'eau à toutes les échelles spatio-temporelles. Ce gaz à effet de serre, qui module de manière importante la convection profonde dans les régions tropicales, est à l'origine de phénomènes extrêmes tels que sécheresses, inondations et cyclones tropicaux, auxquels le bassin sud de l'océan Indien est particulièrement vulnérable. Ce mémoire porte sur l'exploitation de mesures de vapeur d'eau par GNSS collectées dans l'océan Indien par un ensemble de stations du réseau mondial IGS et du réseau IOGA4MET, récemment déployé dans le cadre du programme de recherche ReNovRisk-Cyclones et Changement Climatique. La première partie de cette thèse rappelle la méthode de calcul de la colonne intégrée en vapeur d’eau par GNSS et présente une intercomparaison entre les mesures obtenues par les stations du réseau IGS et divers autres capteurs (satellites micro-ondes, radiosondages) disponibles dans le bassin sud de l’océan Indien. Ces mesures sont ensuite utilisées dans un second temps pour étudier la variabilité de la vapeur d'eau à différentes échelles spatio-temporelles. Les résultats obtenus montrent que la variabilité annuelle est très variable à l'échelle régionale et d'autant plus forte à mesure que l'on s'éloigne de l'équateur. À plus petite échelle, le cycle diurne de la vapeur d’eau apparaît fortement piloté par les interactions entre la dynamique atmosphérique de grande échelle et les circulations locales, notamment dans le cas d’îles tropicales telles que Madagascar et La Réunion.

In this two-part paper, influences from environmental factors on lightning in a convective storm are assessed with a model. In Part I, an electrical component is described and applied in the Aerosol–Cloud model (AC). AC treats many types of secondary (e.g., breakup in ice–ice collisions, raindrop-freezing fragmentation, rime splintering) and primary (heterogeneous, homogeneous freezing) ice initiation. AC represents lightning flashes with a statistical treatment of branching from a fractal law constrained by video imagery.The storm simulated is from the Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study (STEPS; 19/20 June 2000). The simulation was validated microphysically [e.g., ice/droplet concentrations and mean sizes, liquid water content (LWC), reflectivity, surface precipitation] and dynamically (e.g., ascent) in our 2017 paper. Predicted ice concentrations (~10 L−1) agreed—to within a factor of about 2—with aircraft data at flight levels (−10° to −15°C). Here, electrical statistics of the same simulation are compared with observations. Flash rates (to within a factor of 2), triggering altitudes and polarity of flashes, and electric fields, all agree with the coincident STEPS observations.The “normal” tripole of charge structure observed during an electrical balloon sounding is reproduced by AC. It is related to reversal of polarity of noninductive charging in ice–ice collisions seen in laboratory experiments when temperature or LWC are varied. Positively charged graupel and negatively charged snow at most midlevels, charged away from the fastest updrafts, is predicted to cause the normal tripole. Total charge separated in the simulated storm is dominated by collisions involving secondary ice from fragmentation in graupel–snow collisions.

The Tropical Tropopause Layer (TTL), between 14 and 20 km in altitude, plays a key role in the general circulation as a gate to stratosphere for tropospheric air masses (Holton et al., 1995). The condensation of water vapor at the altitude of tropical tropopause temperature minimum causes the stratosphere to have very low water vapour content. Climate models predict an increase in water vapour mixing ratio in the TTL region which could contribute to an additional 10% to the surface warming (Dessler et al., 2013, 2016). The models have great difficulties in modeling water vapor variations in the TTL because of a poor representation of tropical convection, which controls much of the vertical transport of water vapor to the TTL. The impact of the deep convection on the water vapor and ozone content of TTL is addressed in this study. Radiosonde measurements (SHADOZ and Météomodem-M10 sondes) between 2013 and 2016 released from Reunion Island show that 20% of the summertime profiles (between 2013 and 2016) of Reunion Island have a distinct convective detrainment signature in the upper troposphere (10-13km). The lagrangian backtrajectories from FLEXPART model calculated for air masses impacted by convection show that northern Madagascar and the Mozambique Channel play a predominant role in the humidification of the upper troposphere over Reunion Island. With an yearly average of 9 tropical cyclones, the southwestern Indian Ocean is the third most active basin in the world but remains under-observed/studied. In this thesis, the role of tropical cyclones on the TTL moistening over the Indian Ocean is investigated. Mesoscale simulations at 2 km in resolution of cyclone Enawo (2017) carried out with the Meso-NH model showed that a tropical cyclone could humidify the lower stratosphere (17-19 km) by 45% (3.3- 4.8 ppmv) over a 500 km radius. The study focuses in particular on a massive intrusion of water vapor during the eye formation of the cyclone. The main process leading to the TTL humidification is the sublimation of ice transported into TTL by the cyclone. Mesoscale simulations of cyclone Gelena (2019) suggest that the estimation of vertical transport in the TTL car vary significantly between cyclones. According to Meso-NH preliminary résults, cyclone Gelena had humified the TTL by ~1 ppmv between 15 and 18 km in altitude., La couche de la tropopause tropicale (TTL, pour Tropical Tropopause Layer), entre 14 et 20 km d’altitude, joue un rôle clé dans la circulation générale puisqu’elle est le lieu d’entrée des masses d’air troposphériques dans la stratosphère (Holton et al., 1995). En raison de la condensation de la vapeur d’eau au niveau du minimum de température de la tropopause tropicale, l’air stratosphérique présente un très faible contenu en vapeur d’eau. Les modèles climatiques prédisent une augmentation de la concentration de vapeur d’eau dans la région de la TTL qui contribuerait à un réchauffement additionnel de 10% en surface (Dessler et al., 2013). Les modèles ont beaucoup de difficultés à modéliser les variations de vapeur d’eau dans la TTL à cause, entre autres, d’une mauvaise représentation de la convection tropicale qui contrôle en bonne partie le transport vertical de vapeur d’eau vers la TTL. La compréhension des effets de la convection tropicale profonde sur le contenu en vapeur d’eau et en ozone de la haute troposphère est approfondie dans cette thèse. Des mesures radiosondages (sondes SHADOZ et Météomodem-M10) entre 2013 et 2016 lâchés depuis l’île de la Réunion montrent qu’environ 20% des profils en été austral de l’île de La Réunion ont une signature distincte de détrainement convectif en haute troposphère (10-13 km). Les rétrotrajectoires du modèle lagrangien FLEXPART calculées pour les masses d’air marquées par la convection (forte humidité et faible ozone) montrent que le nord de Madagascar et du canal du Mozambique joue un rôle prédominant dans l’humidification de la haute troposphère au-dessus de l’île de la Réunion. Le sud-ouest de l’océan Indien, qui a une moyenne proche de 9 cyclones tropicaux par an, est le troisième bassin le plus actif du globe mais demeure sous observé/étudié. Dans cette thèse, le rôle des cyclones tropicaux sur l’humidification de la TTL au-dessus de l’océan Indien est mis en évidence. Des simulations méso-échelle à 2 km de résolution du cyclone Enawo (2017) réalisées avec le modèle Meso-NH ont montré qu’un cyclone tropical pouvait humidifier la basse stratosphère (17-19 km) de 45% (de 3,3 à 4,8 ppmv) sur un rayon de 500 km. L’étude se focalise en particulier sur une intrusion massive de vapeur d’eau lors de la formation de l'œil du cyclone. Le processus principal menant à l’humidification de la TTL vient de la sublimation de la glace injectée directement en TTL par le cyclone.

The Tropical Tropopause Layer (TTL), between 14 and 20 km in altitude, plays a key role in the general circulation as a gate to stratosphere for tropospheric air masses (Holton et al., 1995). The condensation of water vapor at the altitude of tropical tropopause temperature minimum causes the stratosphere to have very low water vapour content. Climate models predict an increase in water vapour mixing ratio in the TTL region which could contribute to an additional 10% to the surface warming (Dessler et al., 2013, 2016). The models have great difficulties in modeling water vapor variations in the TTL because of a poor representation of tropical convection, which controls much of the vertical transport of water vapor to the TTL. The impact of the deep convection on the water vapor and ozone content of TTL is addressed in this study. Radiosonde measurements (SHADOZ and Météomodem-M10 sondes) between 2013 and 2016 released from Reunion Island show that 20% of the summertime profiles (between 2013 and 2016) of Reunion Island have a distinct convective detrainment signature in the upper troposphere (10-13km). The lagrangian backtrajectories from FLEXPART model calculated for air masses impacted by convection show that northern Madagascar and the Mozambique Channel play a predominant role in the humidification of the upper troposphere over Reunion Island. With an yearly average of 9 tropical cyclones, the southwestern Indian Ocean is the third most active basin in the world but remains under-observed/studied. In this thesis, the role of tropical cyclones on the TTL moistening over the Indian Ocean is investigated. Mesoscale simulations at 2 km in resolution of cyclone Enawo (2017) carried out with the Meso-NH model showed that a tropical cyclone could humidify the lower stratosphere (17-19 km) by 45% (3.3- 4.8 ppmv) over a 500 km radius. The study focuses in particular on a massive intrusion of water vapor during the eye formation of the cyclone. The main process leading to the TTL humidification is the sublimation of ice transported into TTL by the cyclone. Mesoscale simulations of cyclone Gelena (2019) suggest that the estimation of vertical transport in the TTL car vary significantly between cyclones. According to Meso-NH preliminary résults, cyclone Gelena had humified the TTL by ~1 ppmv between 15 and 18 km in altitude.; La couche de la tropopause tropicale (TTL, pour Tropical Tropopause Layer), entre 14 et 20 km d’altitude, joue un rôle clé dans la circulation générale puisqu’elle est le lieu d’entrée des masses d’air troposphériques dans la stratosphère (Holton et al., 1995). En raison de la condensation de la vapeur d’eau au niveau du minimum de température de la tropopause tropicale, l’air stratosphérique présente un très faible contenu en vapeur d’eau. Les modèles climatiques prédisent une augmentation de la concentration de vapeur d’eau dans la région de la TTL qui contribuerait à un réchauffement additionnel de 10% en surface (Dessler et al., 2013). Les modèles ont beaucoup de difficultés à modéliser les variations de vapeur d’eau dans la TTL à cause, entre autres, d’une mauvaise représentation de la convection tropicale qui contrôle en bonne partie le transport vertical de vapeur d’eau vers la TTL. La compréhension des effets de la convection tropicale profonde sur le contenu en vapeur d’eau et en ozone de la haute troposphère est approfondie dans cette thèse. Des mesures radiosondages (sondes SHADOZ et Météomodem-M10) entre 2013 et 2016 lâchés depuis l’île de la Réunion montrent qu’environ 20% des profils en été austral de l’île de La Réunion ont une signature distincte de détrainement convectif en haute troposphère (10-13 km). Les rétrotrajectoires du modèle lagrangien FLEXPART calculées pour les masses d’air marquées par la convection (forte humidité et faible ozone) montrent que le nord de Madagascar et du canal du Mozambique joue un rôle prédominant dans l’humidification de la haute troposphère au-dessus de l’île de la Réunion. Le sud-ouest de l’océan Indien, qui a une moyenne proche de 9 cyclones tropicaux par an, est le troisième bassin le plus actif du globe mais demeure sous observé/étudié. Dans cette thèse, le rôle des cyclones tropicaux sur l’humidification de la TTL au-dessus de l’océan Indien est mis en évidence. Des simulations méso-échelle à 2 km de résolution du cyclone Enawo (2017) réalisées avec le modèle Meso-NH ont montré qu’un cyclone tropical pouvait humidifier la basse stratosphère (17-19 km) de 45% (de 3,3 à 4,8 ppmv) sur un rayon de 500 km. L’étude se focalise en particulier sur une intrusion massive de vapeur d’eau lors de la formation de l'œil du cyclone. Le processus principal menant à l’humidification de la TTL vient de la sublimation de la glace injectée directement en TTL par le cyclone.

International audience; Despite a number of studies on biomass burning (BB) emissions in the atmosphere, observation of the associated aerosols and pollutants requires continuous efforts. Brazil, and more broadly Latin America, is one of the most important seasonal sources of BB, particularly in the Amazon region. Uncertainty about aerosol loading in the source regions is a limiting factor in terms of understanding the role of aerosols in climate modelling. In the present work, we investigated the Amazon BB episode that occurred during August 2019 and made the international headlines, especially when the smoke plumes plunged distant cities such as São Paulo into darkness. Here, we used satellite and ground-based observations at different locations to investigate the long-range transport of aerosol plumes generated by the Amazon fires during the study period. The monitoring of BB activity was carried out using fire related pixel count from the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) onboard the Aqua and Terra platforms, while the distribution of carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations and total columns were obtained from the infrared atmospheric sounding interferometer (IASI) onboard the METOP-A and METOP-B satellites. In addition, AERONET sun-photometers as well as the MODIS instrument made aerosol optical depth (AOD) measurements over the study region. Our datasets are consistent with each other and highlight AOD and CO variations and long-range transport of the fire plume from the source regions in the Amazon basin. We used the Lagrangian transport model FLEXPART (FLEXible PARTicle) to simulate backward dispersion, which showed good agreement with satellite and ground measurements observed over the study area. The increase in Rossby wave activity during the 2019 austral winter the Southern Hemisphere may have contributed to increasing the efficiency of large-scale transport of aerosol plumes generated by the Amazon fires during the study period.

The StratoClim airborne campaign took place in Nepal from 27 July to 10 August 2017 to document the physical and chemical properties of the South Asian Upper Troposphere Lower Stratosphere (UTLS) during the Asian Summer Monsoon (ASM). In the present paper, simulations with the Meso-NH cloud-chemistry model at a horizontal resolution of 15 km are performed over the Asian region to characterize the impact of monsoon deep convection on the composition of Asian Monsoon Anticyclone (AMA) and on the formation of the Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (ATAL) during the StratoClim campaign. StratoClim took place during a break phase of the monsoon with an intense convective activity over south China and Sichuan. Comparisons between Brightness Temperature (BT) at 10.8 microns observed by satellite sensors and simulated by Meso-NH highlight the ability of the model to correctly reproduce the life cycle of deep convective clouds. Comparison between CO and O3 concentrations from Meso-NH and airborne observations (StratoClim and IAGOS) demonstrates that the model captures most of the observed variabilities. Nevertheless, for both gases, the model tends to overestimate the concentrations and misses some thin CO plumes related to local convective events probably because of a too coarse resolution, but the convective uplift of pollution is very well captured by the model. We have therefore focused on the impact of Sichuan convection on the AMA composition. A dedicated sensitivity simulation showed that the 7 August convective event brought large amounts of CO deep into the AMA and even across the 380 K isentropic level located at 17.8 km. This Sichuan contribution enhanced the CO concentration by ~ 15 % to reach more than 180 ppbv over a large area around 15 km height. Noteworthy, Meso-NH captures the impact of the diluted Sichuan plume on the CO concentration during a StratoClim flight south of Kathmandu highlighting its ability to reproduce the transport pathway of Sichuan pollution. According to the model, primary organic aerosol and black carbon particles originating from Sichuan are transported following the same pathway as CO. The large particles are heavily scavenged within the precipitating part of the convective clouds but remain the most important contributor to the particle mass in the AMA. Over the whole AMA region, the 7 August convective event resulted in a 0.5 % increase of CO over the 10–20 km range that lasted about 2 days. The impact of pollution uplift from three regions (India, China and Sichuan) averaged over the first 10 days of August has also been evaluated with sensitivity simulations. Even during this monsoon break phase, the results confirm the predominant role of India relative to China with respective contributions of 11 and 7 % to CO in the 10–15 km layer. Moreover, during this period a large part (35 %) of the Chinese contribution comes from the Sichuan basin alone.; The StratoClim airborne campaign took place in Nepal from 27 July to 10 August 2017 to document the physical and chemical properties of the South Asian Upper Troposphere Lower Stratosphere (UTLS) during the Asian Summer Monsoon (ASM). In the present paper, simulations with the Meso-NH cloud-chemistry model at a horizontal resolution of 15 km are performed over the Asian region to characterize the impact of monsoon deep convection on the composition of 20 Asian Monsoon Anticyclone (AMA) and on the formation of the Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (ATAL) during the StratoClim campaign. StratoClim took place during a break phase of the monsoon with an intense convective activity over south China and Sichuan. Comparisons between Brightness Temperature (BT) at 10.8 microns observed by satellite sensors and simulated by Meso-NH highlight the ability of the model to correctly reproduce the life cycle of deep convective clouds. Comparison between CO and O 3 concentrations from Meso-NH and airborne observations (StratoClim and IAGOS) 25 demonstrates that the model captures most of the observed variabilities. Nevertheless, for both gases, the model tends to overestimate the concentrations and misses some thin CO plumes related to local convective events probably because of a too coarse resolution, but the convective uplift of pollution is very well captured by the model. We have therefore focused on the impact of Sichuan convection on the AMA composition. A dedicated sensitivity simulation showed that the 7 August convective event brought large amounts of CO deep into the AMA and even across the 380 K isentropic level located at 17.8 30 km. This Sichuan contribution enhanced the CO concentration by ~15 % to reach more than 180 ppbv over a large area around 15 km height. Noteworthy, Meso-NH captures the impact of the diluted Sichuan plume on the CO concentration during a StratoClim flight south of Kathmandu highlighting its ability to reproduce the transport pathway of Sichuan pollution. According to the model, primary organic aerosol and black carbon particles originating from Sichuan are 2 transported following the same pathway as CO. The large particles are heavily scavenged within the precipitating part of the 35 convective clouds but remain the most important contributor to the particle mass in the AMA. Over the whole AMA region, the 7 August convective event resulted in a 0.5% increase of CO over the 10−20 km range that lasted about 2 days. The impact of pollution uplift from three regions (India, China and Sichuan) averaged over the first 10 days of August has also been evaluated with sensitivity simulations. Even during this monsoon break phase, the results confirm the predominant role of India relative to China with respective contributions of 11 and 7 % to CO in the 10-15 km layer. Moreover, during this 40 period a large part (35 %) of the Chinese contribution comes from the Sichuan basin alone.

While the stratospheric ozone protects the biosphere against ultraviolet (UV) radiation, tropospheric ozone acts like a greenhouse gas and an indicator of anthropogenic pollution. In this paper, we combined ground-based and satellite ozone observations over Irene site (25.90&deg, S, 28.22&deg, E), one of the most ancient ozone-observing stations in the southern tropics. The dataset is made of daily total columns and weekly profiles of ozone collected over 20 years, from 1998 to 2017. In order to fill in some missing data and split the total column of ozone into a tropospheric and a stratospheric column, we used satellite observations from TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer), OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument), and MLS (Microwave Limb Sounder) experiments. The tropospheric column is derived by integrating ozone profiles from an ozonesonde experiment, while the stratospheric column is obtained by subtracting the tropospheric column from the total column (recorded by the Dobson spectrometer), and by assuming that the mesospheric contribution is negligible. Each of the obtained ozone time series was then analyzed by applying the method of wavelet transform, which permitted the determination of the main forcings that contribute to each ozone time series. We then applied the multivariate Trend-Run model and the Mann&ndash, Kendall test for trend analysis. Despite the different analytical approaches, the obtained results are broadly similar and consistent. They showed a decrease in the stratospheric column (&minus, 0.56% and &minus, 1.7% per decade, respectively, for Trend-Run and Mann&ndash, Kendall) and an increase in the tropospheric column (+2.37% and +3.6%, per decade, respectively, for Trend-Run and Mann&ndash, Kendall). Moreover, the results presented here indicated that the slowing down of the total ozone decline is somewhat due to the contribution of the tropospheric ozone concentration.

Reunion Island is a popular tourist destination with sandy beaches, an active volcano (Piton de la Fournaise), and Piton des Neiges, the highest and most dominant geological feature on the island. Reunion is known to have high levels of solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) with an ultraviolet index (UVI) which can reach 8 in winter and 16 in summer (climatological conditions). UVR has been linked to skin cancer, melanoma, and eye disease such as cataracts. The World Health Organization (WHO) devised the UVI as a tool for expressing UVR intensity. Thresholds ranging from low (UVI 1&ndash, 2) to extreme (UVI &gt, 11) were defined depending on the risk to human health. The purpose of the study was to assess UVR exposure levels over three of the busiest tourist sites on the island. UVR was measured over several hours along popular hiking trails around Piton de la Fournaise (PDF), Piton des Neiges (PDN), and St-Leu Beach (LEU). The results were compared with those recorded by the local UV station at Saint-Denis. In addition, cumulative standard erythemal dose (SED) was calculated. Results showed that UVI exposure at PDF, PDN, and LEU were extreme (&gt, 11) and reached maximum UVI levels of 21.1, 22.5, and 14.5, respectively. Cumulative SEDs were multiple times higher than the thresholds established by the Fitzpatrick skin phototype classification. UVI measurements at the three study sites showed that Reunion Island is exposed to extreme UVR conditions. Public awareness campaigns are needed to inform the population of the health risks related to UVR exposure.

International audience; Surface and sub-surface ocean temperature observations collected by sea turtles (ST) during the first phase (Jan 2019–April 2020) of the Sea Turtle for Ocean Research and Monitoring (STORM) project are compared against in-situ and satellite temperature measurements, and later relied upon to assess the performance of the Glo12 operational ocean model over the west tropical Indian Ocean. The evaluation of temperature profiles collected by STs against collocated ARGO drifter measurements show good agreement at all sample depths (0–250 m). Comparisons against various operational satellite sea surface temperature (SST) products indicate a slight overestimation of ST-borne temperature observations of ∼0.1°±°0.6° that is nevertheless consistent with expected uncertainties on satellite-derived SST data. Comparisons of ST-borne surface and subsurface temperature observations against Glo12 temperature forecasts demonstrate the good performance of the model surface and subsurface (50 m), the model is, however, shown to significantly underestimate ocean temperatures as already noticed from global evaluation scores performed operationally at the basin scale. The distribution of model errors also shows significant spatial and temporal variability in the first 50 m of the ocean, which will be further investigated in the next phases of the STORM project.

In early March 2017, tropical cyclone (TC) Enawo formed north of Réunion Island and moved westward toward Madagascar. Enawo evolved from a tropical depression on 2 March to an intense TC on 6 March. This study explores the water vapor transport into the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) throughout TC Enawo's development. High-resolution (2 km) mesoscale simulations using the Meso-NH model were performed to cover TC Enawo's lifecycle over the ocean for the period 2–7 March 2017. The simulated convective cloud field agrees with geostationary satellite infrared observations. Compared to the Global Precipitation Measurements (GPM) and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) satellite observations, the simulation seems to reproduce well both location and amplitude of the observed precipitation. Simulated and observed ice water content have similar ranges in the upper troposphere but simulated ice above the tropopause is overestimated by a factor 10. Balloon-borne measurements of water vapor, temperature and horizontal winds are also used to validate the Meso-NH simulations in the upper-troposphere and TTL regions. The simulations reveal that the maximum water vapor transport into the TTL occurred on 4 March, when deep (cold) convective clouds were observed. As a result, the lower stratospheric water vapor is increased by ~50 % when compared to pre-storm conditions. An increase of ~2 ppmv in water vapor mixing ratio was simulated in the lower stratosphere within a 700-km region surrounding Enawo's center. Our simulation of TC Enawo suggests that TCs over the Southwest Indian Ocean (0–30° S, 30–90° E) could produce a moistening of 0.4 ppmv. We extended our results to the global tropics (30° S–30° N) using the estimates from published work (Allison et al., 2018; Preston et al., 2019) and by calculating statistics on TC numbers and durations using the International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) dataset. We estimated a global impact of TC induced tropical lower stratospheric moistening of 0.3 to 0.5 ppmv. Our results suggest that TCs may play an important role in the moistening of the TTL/lower stratosphere via direct injection of ice particles and subsequent sublimation.; In early March 2017, tropical cyclone (TC) Enawo formed north of Réunion Island and moved westward toward Madagascar. Enawo evolved from a tropical depression on 2 March to an intense TC on 6 March. 15 This study explores the water vapor transport into the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) throughout TC Enawo's development. High-resolution (2km) mesoscale simulations using the Meso-NH model were performed to cover TC Enawo's lifecycle over the ocean for the period 2-7 March 2017. The simulated convective cloud field agrees with geostationary satellite infrared observations. Compared to the Global Precipitation Measurements (GPM) and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) satellite observations, the 20 simulation seems to reproduce well both location and amplitude of the observed precipitation. Simulated and observed ice water content have similar ranges in the upper troposphere but simulated ice above the tropopause is overestimated by a factor 10. Balloon-borne measurements of water vapor, temperature and horizontal winds are also used to validate the Meso-NH simulations in the upper-troposphere and TTL regions. The simulations reveal that the maximum water vapor transport into the TTL occurred on 4 March, when deep (cold) convective 25 clouds were observed. As a result, the lower stratospheric water vapor is increased by ~50% when compared to pre-storm conditions. An increase of ~2ppmv in water vapor mixing ratio was simulated in the lower stratosphere within a 700-km region surrounding Enawo's center. Our simulation of TC Enawo suggests that TCs over the Southwest Indian Ocean (0-30°S, 30-90°E) could produce a moistening of 0.4 ppmv. We extended our results to the global tropics (30°S-30°N) using the estimates from published work (Allison et al., 2018; Preston et al., 2019) 30 and by calculating statistics on TC numbers and durations using the International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) dataset. We estimated a global impact of TC induced tropical lower stratospheric moistening of 0.3 to 0.5 ppmv. Our results suggest that TCs may play an important role in the moistening of the TTL/lower stratosphere via direct injection of ice particles and subsequent sublimation.

International audience; Abstract. In this study, we present O3 retrievals from ground-based Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) solar absorption measurements between June 2018 and December 2019 at Xianghe, China (39.75∘ N, 116.96∘ E). The FTIR spectrometer at Xianghe is operated with indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) and indium antimonide (InSb) detectors, recording the spectra between 1800 and 11 000 cm−1. As the harmonized FTIR O3 retrieval strategy (Vigouroux et al., 2015) within the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC) uses the 1000 cm−1 spectral range, we apply the O3 retrieval in the 3040 cm−1 spectral range at Xianghe. The retrieved O3 profile is mainly sensitive to the vertical range between 10 and 40 km, and the degrees of freedom for signal is 2.4±0.3 (1σ), indicating that there are two individual pieces of information in partial columns between the surface and 20 km and between 20 and 40 km. According to the optimal estimation method, the systematic and random uncertainties of the FTIR O3 total columns are about 13.6 % and 1.4 %, respectively. The random uncertainty is consistent with the observed daily standard deviation of the FTIR retrievals. To validate the FTIR O3 total and partial columns, we apply the same O3 retrieval strategy at Maïdo, Réunion (a.k.a. Reunion Island; 21.08∘ N, 55.38∘ E). The FTIR O3 (3040 cm−1) measurements at Xianghe and Maïdo are then compared with the nearby ozonesondes at Beijing (39.81∘ N, 116.47∘ E) and at Gillot (20.89∘ S, 55.53∘ E), respectively, as well as with co-located TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) satellite measurements at both sites. In addition at Maïdo, we compare the FTIR O3 (3040 cm−1) retrievals with the standard NDACC FTIR O3 measurements using the 1000 cm−1 spectral range. It was found that the total columns retrieved from the FTIR O3 3040 cm−1 measurements are underestimated by 5.5 %–9.0 %, which is mainly due to the systematic uncertainty in the partial column between 20 and 40 km (about −10.4 %). The systematic uncertainty in the partial column between surface and 20 km is relatively small (within 2.4 %). By comparison with other measurements, it was found that the FTIR O3 (3040 cm−1) retrievals capture the seasonal and synoptic variations of the O3 total and two partial columns very well. Therefore, the ongoing FTIR measurements at Xianghe can provide useful information on the O3 variations and (in the future) long-term trends.

The main causes of skin cancer are human behavior change and the increase of surface ultraviolet radiation, in response to atmospheric parameters changes (stratospheric ozone, clouds, or aerosols) due to climate change or anthropogenic activities. Taking into account their geographic position, tropical regions receive the maximum of solar UV irradiance. The risk related to UV is very high, due to the demography or increase in outdoor activities. The precise UV measurement then becomes very important. One of the purpose of this PhD thesis was the evaluation of different UV measurement instruments in comparison to a reference one. Comparison to satellite UV measurements was also performed. A trend study was done by using ground-based UV database at Saint-Denis. An increase trend in UVI was found. This increase may be due to ozone change or to cloud change in response to the increase of sea temperature caused by climate change. Following that comparison work, UV exposure work was done in popular sites where people are exposed to extreme UV radiation, in altitude for example. Réunion island is a mountainous well-known for its several possibilities of hikes and outdoors activities. The measurement performed during the Maïdo - Grand Bénare hike, for example, showed that people can be exposed up to 60 standard erythemal doses, what corresponds to several times the minimal threshold to elicit sunburn whatever the sun phototype. Therefore, the public must be informed of the danger of UV exposure. Along with more awareness campaigns and more efficient measuring devices placed around the island, a general understanding of UVR will improve, thereby reducing the risks linked to excess exposure resulting from insufficient UVR protection.; Les causes potentielles de l’augmentation des cancers de la peau sont nombreuses, comme les changements comportementaux ou les modifications de l’intensité des rayonnements ultraviolets (UV) à la surface, en réponse aux perturbations de paramètres environnementaux (ozone stratosphérique, nébulosité, aérosols) dues au changement climatique ou aux activités anthropiques. Compte tenu de leur position géographique, les régions tropicales reçoivent le maximum de rayonnement solaire incident et donc d’UV. Le risque UV dans ces régions est très élevé, du fait de plusieurs facteurs dont la démographie ou les habitudes d'activités en extérieur. La mesure précise de l’intensité du rayonnement ultraviolet est donc primordiale. Un des objectifs de ce travail a été l’évaluation de la qualité de différents instruments par comparaison à un instrument de référence. Un exercice de comparaison satellite a également été réalisé. Une étude de tendance a été faite à partir de la base de données UV de La Réunion. Une tendance à l’augmentation a été trouvée. Cette augmentation peut être due à un changement d’ozone ou encore à un changement de nébulosité liée à l’augmentation de la température des océans. Enfin, il a été réalisé des mesures d’exposition dans des lieux très fréquentés et où l’intensité du rayonnement et le risque UV sont très élevés. La Réunion étant une île montagneuse connue pour ses nombreuses possibilités de randonnées et d’activités en extérieur, des mesures d’exposition ont été réalisées sur des sites fréquentés, par exemple la randonnée Maïdo-Grand Bénare ; réalisée en 7h de marche, au bout desquelles il a été mesuré plus de 60 doses standards érythemales. Selon le phototype, et quel que soit le site, les doses obtenues sont de multiples fois supérieures aux doses minimales érythemales. Il en ressort clairement l’importance de la protection des populations ainsi que la nécessité de campagne de prévention sur le risque UV.

The main causes of skin cancer are human behavior change and the increase of surface ultraviolet radiation, in response to atmospheric parameters changes (stratospheric ozone, clouds, or aerosols) due to climate change or anthropogenic activities. Taking into account their geographic position, tropical regions receive the maximum of solar UV irradiance. The risk related to UV is very high, due to the demography or increase in outdoor activities. The precise UV measurement then becomes very important. One of the purpose of this PhD thesis was the evaluation of different UV measurement instruments in comparison to a reference one. Comparison to satellite UV measurements was also performed. A trend study was done by using ground-based UV database at Saint-Denis. An increase trend in UVI was found. This increase may be due to ozone change or to cloud change in response to the increase of sea temperature caused by climate change. Following that comparison work, UV exposure work was done in popular sites where people are exposed to extreme UV radiation, in altitude for example. Réunion island is a mountainous well-known for its several possibilities of hikes and outdoors activities. The measurement performed during the Maïdo - Grand Bénare hike, for example, showed that people can be exposed up to 60 standard erythemal doses, what corresponds to several times the minimal threshold to elicit sunburn whatever the sun phototype. Therefore, the public must be informed of the danger of UV exposure. Along with more awareness campaigns and more efficient measuring devices placed around the island, a general understanding of UVR will improve, thereby reducing the risks linked to excess exposure resulting from insufficient UVR protection.; Les causes potentielles de l’augmentation des cancers de la peau sont nombreuses, comme les changements comportementaux ou les modifications de l’intensité des rayonnements ultraviolets (UV) à la surface, en réponse aux perturbations de paramètres environnementaux (ozone stratosphérique, nébulosité, aérosols) dues au changement climatique ou aux activités anthropiques. Compte tenu de leur position géographique, les régions tropicales reçoivent le maximum de rayonnement solaire incident et donc d’UV. Le risque UV dans ces régions est très élevé, du fait de plusieurs facteurs dont la démographie ou les habitudes d'activités en extérieur. La mesure précise de l’intensité du rayonnement ultraviolet est donc primordiale. Un des objectifs de ce travail a été l’évaluation de la qualité de différents instruments par comparaison à un instrument de référence. Un exercice de comparaison satellite a également été réalisé. Une étude de tendance a été faite à partir de la base de données UV de La Réunion. Une tendance à l’augmentation a été trouvée. Cette augmentation peut être due à un changement d’ozone ou encore à un changement de nébulosité liée à l’augmentation de la température des océans. Enfin, il a été réalisé des mesures d’exposition dans des lieux très fréquentés et où l’intensité du rayonnement et le risque UV sont très élevés. La Réunion étant une île montagneuse connue pour ses nombreuses possibilités de randonnées et d’activités en extérieur, des mesures d’exposition ont été réalisées sur des sites fréquentés, par exemple la randonnée Maïdo-Grand Bénare ; réalisée en 7h de marche, au bout desquelles il a été mesuré plus de 60 doses standards érythemales. Selon le phototype, et quel que soit le site, les doses obtenues sont de multiples fois supérieures aux doses minimales érythemales. Il en ressort clairement l’importance de la protection des populations ainsi que la nécessité de campagne de prévention sur le risque UV.

International audience; The plasma refraction index can be calculated by different methods. In this paper, a physical approach is presented and applied to non-linear situations. We have particularly focused on the case where the mass of the electrons subjected to the wave becomes relativistic. In the case of a circularly polarized high intensity wave, ionization is considered.

Aerosol particles are essential constituents of the Earth’s atmosphere, impacting the earth radiation balance directly by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, and indirectly by acting as cloud condensation nuclei. In contrast to most greenhouse gases, aerosol particles have short atmospheric residence times, resulting in a highly heterogeneous distribution in space and time. There is a clear need to document this variability at regional scale through observations involving, in particular, the in situ near-surface segment of the atmospheric observation system. This paper will provide the widest effort so far to document variability of climate-relevant in situ aerosol properties (namely wavelength dependent particle light scattering and absorption coefficients, particle number concentration and particle number size distribution) from all sites connected to the Global Atmosphere Watch network. High-quality data from almost 90 stations worldwide have been collected and controlled for quality and are reported for a reference year in 2017, providing a very extended and robust view of the variability of these variables worldwide. The range of variability observed worldwide for light scattering and absorption coefficients, single-scattering albedo, and particle number concentration are presented together with preliminary information on their long-term trends and comparison with model simulation for the different stations. The scope of the present paper is also to provide the necessary suite of information, including data provision procedures, quality control and analysis, data policy, and usage of the ground-based aerosol measurement network. It delivers to users of the World Data Centre on Aerosol, the required confidence in data products in the form of a fully characterized value chain, including uncertainty estimation and requirements for contributing to the global climate monitoring system., European Commission Joint Research Centre 654109, European ERDF funds through different Spanish R&D projects of the Spanish Ministerio de Economia, Industria y Competitividad, NorthWest University, University of Helsinki, Academy of Finland 272041, Academy of Finland project Greenhouse gas 269095 296302, Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program "Development of Monitoring and Analysis Techniques for Atmospheric Composition in Korea KMA2018-00522, National Research Foundation of Korea 2017R1D1A1B06032548, Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program KMI2018-01111, Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration, Ministry of Research, France, French Ministry of the Environment, United States Environmental Protection Agency, MeteoSwiss (GAW-CH aerosol monitoring programme), Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI), Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of CR within National Sustainability Program I (NPU I) LO1415, ERDF "ACTRISCZ RI" CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001315 CGL2017-85344-R MINECO/AEI/FEDER, TIGAS-CM (Madrid Regional Government) Y2018/EMT-5177, AIRTECCM (Madrid Regional Government) P2018/EMT4329 REDMAAS2020 RED2018-102594-T CIENCIA, Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness, European Union (EU) CGL2016-78594-R, Generalitat de Catalunya AGAUR 2017 SGR41, National Institute for Aerospace Technology, Ministerio Espanol de Economia, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO) MIS 5021516, Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation, NSRF, Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR), Norwegian Environment Agency, Swedish FORMAS; Swedish Research Council (VR), Magnus Bergvall foundation, Marta och Erik Holmberg foundation, Swedish EPA

International audience; Satellite estimates of surface ultraviolet A (UVA) (315–400 nm) from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME)‐2 were compared to ground‐based measurements at four stations in South Africa for 2015. The comparison of daily exposure and daily maximum irradiance was completed for all‐sky and clear‐sky conditions. There is a strong linear correlation between the satellite and ground‐based data with a correlation coefficient (r) between 0.86 and 0.97 for all‐sky conditions. However, at three of the stations the satellite data are underestimated compared to ground‐based data with a mean bias error (MBE) between −8.7% and −20.6%. A seasonal analysis indicated that there is a link between the bias in ground‐based and GOME‐2 UVA and cloud fraction. Factors such as aerosols, surface albedo, altitude and data resolution may contribute to the underestimations found at the three sites. These results indicate that satellite estimates of surface UVA over South Africa do not exhibit the same behavior as other stations around the world and therefore require further validation.

For the last 25 years, CO-PDD (Cézeaux-Aulnat-Opme-puy de Dôme) has evolved to become a full instrumented platform for atmospheric research. It has received credentials as a national observing platform in France and is internationally recognized as a global station in the GAW (Global Atmosphere Watch) network. It is a reference site of European and national research infrastructures ACTRIS (Aerosol Cloud and Trace gases Research Infrastructure) and ICOS (Integrated Carbon Observing System). The site located on top of the puy de Dôme mountain (1465 m a.s.l.) is completed by additional sites located at lower altitudes and adding the vertical dimension to the atmospheric observations: Opme (660 m a.s.l.), Cézeaux (410 m), and Aulnat (330 m). The integration of different sites offers a unique combination of in situ and remote sensing measurements capturing and documenting the variability of particulate and gaseous atmospheric composition, but also the optical, biochemical, and physical properties of aerosol particles, clouds, and precipitations. Given its location far away from any major emission sources, its altitude, and the mountain orography, the puy de Dôme station is ideally located to sample different air masses in the boundary layer or in the free troposphere depending on time of day and seasons. It is also an ideal place to study cloud properties with frequent presence of clouds at the top in fall and winter. As a result of the natural conditions prevailing at the site and of the very exhaustive instrumental deployment, scientific studies at the puy de Dôme strongly contribute to improving knowledge in atmospheric sciences, including the characterization of trends and variability, the understanding of complex and interconnected processes (microphysical, chemical, biological, chemical and dynamical), and the provision of reference information for climate/chemistry models. In this context, CO-PDD is a pilot site to conduct instrumental development inside its wind tunnel for testing liquid and ice cloud probes in natural conditions, or in situ systems to collect aerosol and cloud. This paper reviews 25 years (1995–2020) of atmospheric observation at the station and related scientific research contributing to atmospheric and climate science.

In a context of climate change, the variability of meteorological parameters remains very sensitive to our environment. This work is part of a global perspective of the analysis of annual, inter-annual and spatial variability of meteorological parameters in Guinea. It is based on the exploitation of long series of observations (57 years) measured by 12 meteorological stations spread over all regions of Guinea. The objective of this thesis is to investigate these original series in order to improve our understanding of climate variability and associated geophysical processes. The approach developed in this PhD is based on a climatological analysis, followed by decanal trend assessment by the use of very recent and adapted numerical methods. The study shows that temperature variability is dominated by annual and semi-annual seasonal cycles, while rainfall variability is characterized by a predominantly annual cycle. The results have shown a significant increase in temperature trends and a decrease in precipitations since late 1960s. It was also found that the spatial distributions of temperature and rainfall have negative and positive latitudinal gradients equatorward, respectively. However, rainfall records remain very high in the coastal region and in the south-eastern part of the country. In addition to the semi-annual and annual oscillations, the investigated forcings do contribute to temperature and rainfall variability on different spatial and temporal scales. Among these forcings, we examined and quantified, for all regions, the contributions of Atlantic Niño, the Niño 3.4 Index, the AMM Index, the TNA Index and the Solar Flux. As for the long-term trend analysis, our results show that temperatures have globally increased from +0.04 to +0.21°C/decade. The northern half and the southern region of Guinea recorded the highest warming, followed by the coastal region which is under coastal, topographical and urbanization effects.; Dans un contexte de changement climatique, la variabilité des paramètres météorologiques demeure très sensible à notre environnement. Ce travail s’inscrit dans une perspective globale de l’analyse de la variabilité annuelle, interannuelle et spatiale des paramètres météorologiques en Guinée. Il est basé sur l’exploitation de longues séries d’observations (57ans) mesurées par 12 stations météorologiques réparties sur l’ensemble des régions de la Guinée. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’exploiter ces séries originales, afin d’améliorer la compréhension de la variabilité des paramètres météorologiques et contribuer à augmenter la documentation des processus géophysiques associés. La démarche développée est basée sur une analyse climatologique, puis l’estimation des tendances, en utilisant des méthodes numériques adaptées. Il ressort de cette étude que la variabilité de la température est dominée par les cycles saisonniers annuel et semi-annuel, tandis que celle de la pluviométrie se caractérise par un cycle annuel prépondérant. Les résultats ont montré une tendance à la hausse de la température et une tendance à la baisse des précipitations depuis la fin des années 1960. Il a été constaté par ailleurs que les distributions spatiales de température et pluviométrie présentent, respectivement, un gradient latitudinal négatif et positif, dans le sens nord-sud. La pluviométrie reste cependant très élevée dans la région côtière et dans le sud-est du pays. En plus des oscillations semi-annuelle et annuelle, les forçages analysés contribuent à la variabilité de la température et de la pluviométrie à des échelles spatiales et temporelles différentes. Parmi ces forçages, nous avons examiné et quantifié, pour l’ensemble des 12 stations, les contributions de l’Atlantique Niño, l’indice Niño 3.4, de l’indice AMM, de l’indice TNA et le Flux Solaire. En ce qui concerne l’analyse des tendances à long-terme, les résultats montrent que les températures ont globalement augmenté de +0,04 à +0,21 °C/décade. La moitié nord et la région sud de la Guinée enregistrent le plus fort réchauffement, suivies par la région côtière influencée par les effets de côte, de topographie et d'urbanisation.

International audience; The Soberanes Fire burned 53,470 ha (132,127 acres) along the central California coast between 22 July and 12 October 2016, generating dense smoke and a variety of gaseous compounds that drifted eastward into the San Joaquin Valley Air Basin (SJVAB), an “extreme” nonattainment area for ozone (O3). These gases included nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds, the photochemical precursors of O3. The fire started during the California Baseline Ozone Transport Study, a field campaign that brought aircraft, surface, and remote sensing measurements of O3 and related species to central California. In this paper, we use the California Baseline Ozone Transport Study measurements to assess the impact of the Soberanes Fire on ozone and particulate air quality in the SJVAB. We focus our analysis on 27 July to 2 August when the smoke haze was heaviest and the highest O3 concentrations in the SJVAB during 2016 were recorded. Our analyses suggest that while 40 to 60 ppbv of fire‐generated O3 was transported to the eastern SJVAB in the 1‐ to 3‐km‐altitude range, relatively little smoke or fire‐generated O3 reached the surface in the Visalia area.

Trend-Run model was performed to estimate the trend in surface temperatures recorded at 12 sites in Guinea from 1960 to 2016 and to examine the contribution of each climate forcing. The coefficient of determination (R2) calculated varies between 0.60 and 0.90, it provides total information about the simulation capability of the model. The decadal trend values also calculated show an upward trend (between 0.04 &deg, C &plusmn, 0.06 &deg, C decade&minus, 1 and 0.21 &deg, 1). In addition, forcings&rsquo, contributions were quantified, and the annual oscillation (AO) contribution is higher for most of the stations, followed by semiannual oscillation (SAO). Among the forcings, the tropical Northern Atlantic (TNA) contribution is greater than that of the sunspot number (SSN), Ni&ntilde, o3.4 and Atlantic Ni&ntilde, o (AN). Moreover, the Mann-Kendall test revealed a positive significant trend for all stations except at the Macenta site. Additionally, with sequential Mann-Kendall test, trend turning points were found only for the stations of Mamou, Koundara and Macenta at different dates. The temperature anomalies depict warming episodes (1970s, 1980s, 1984 and 1990s). Since then, the temperature is consistently increasing over the country. A significant warming has been shown, which might be further investigated using these models with additional contributing factors.

Total column of ozone (TCO) time series analysis and accurate forecasting is of great significance in monitoring the status of the Chapman Mechanism in the stratosphere, which prevents harmful UV radiation from reaching the Earth&rsquo, s surface. In this study, we performed a detailed time series analysis of the TCO data measured in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Moreover, hybrid data-driven forecasting models, based on long short-term memory networks (LSTM) recurrent neural networks (RNNs), are developed. We extracted the updated trend of the TCO time series by utilizing the singular spectrum analysis (SSA), empirical wavelet transform (EWT), empirical mode decomposition (EMD), and Mann-Kendall. In general, the TCO has been stable since the mid-1990s. The trend analysis shows that there is a recovery of ozone during the period from 2010 to 2017, apart from the decline of ozone observed during 2015, which is presumably associated with the Calbuco volcanic event. The EWT trend method seems to have effective power for trend identification, compared with others. In this study, we developed a robust data-driven hybrid time series-forecasting model (named EWT-LSTM) for the TCO time series forecasting. Our model has the advantage of utilizing the EWT technique in the decomposition stage of the LSTM process. We compared our model with (1) an LSTM model that uses EMD, namely EMD-LSTM, (2) an LSTM model that uses wavelet denoising (WD) (WD-LSTM), (3) a wavelet denoising EWT-LSTM (WD-EWT-LSTM), and (4) a wavelet denoising noise-reducing sequence called EMD-LSTM (WD-EMD-LSTM). The model that uses the EWT decomposition process (EWT-LSTM) outperformed the other five models developed here in terms of various forecasting performance evaluation criteria, such as the root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), and correlation coefficient (R).

Pedreros, R.; Idier, D.; Le Roy, S.; David, A.; Schaeffer, D.; Durand, J., and Desmazes, F., 2020. Infragravity waves in a complex macro-tidal environment: High frequency hydrodynamic measurements and modelling. In: Malvarez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 1235–1239. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.Nearshore high frequency (> 1 Hz) hydrodynamic measurements over month to year scale face many issues, especially in inter-tidal areas. We present measurements done in the intertidal area of a macro-tidal site (Gâvres, France), and on a time span of 2 years. The measurements are done with a WiSens NKE pressure sensor (burst mode of 17 minutes). Infragravity (IG) waves are present in the signal with IG wave heights reaching 0.5 m. The hydro-meteorological conditions (tide, surge, offshore short wave, wind) are characterized for each burst, showing for instance a linear increase of IG wave height with the offshore wave height (Hs) as long as Hs remains smaller than 4 m. To further investigate the temporal and spatial variability of IG waves, the analysis is completed using an unsteady phase resolving model (SWASH). We show how the IG wave height depend on the offshore wave conditions, the still water level, local wind conditions, and the local configuration, and provide hypothesis on the IG wave mechanisms generation on Gâvres.

International audience; Measurement of solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is important for the assessment of potential beneficial and adverse impacts on the biosphere, plants, animals, and humans. Excess solar UVR exposure in humans is associated with skin carcinogenesis and immunosuppression. Several factors influence solar UVR at the Earth's surface, such as latitude and cloud cover. Given the potential risks from solar UVR there is a need to measure solar UVR at different locations using effective instrumentation. Various instruments are available to measure solar UVR, but some are expensive and others are not portable, both restrictive variables for exposure assessments. Here, we compared solar UVR sensors commercialized at low or moderate cost to assess their performance and quality of measurements against a high-grade Bentham spectrometer. The inter-comparison campaign took place between March 2018 and February 2019 at Saint-Denis, La Réunion. Instruments evaluated included a Kipp&Zonen UVS-E-T radiometer, a Solar Light UV-Biometer, a SGLux UV-Cosine radiometer, and a Davis radiometer. Cloud fraction was considered using a SkyCamVision all-sky camera and the Tropospheric Ultraviolet Visible radiative transfer model was used to model clear-sky conditions. Overall, there was good reliability between the instruments over time, except for the Davis radiometer, which showed dependence on solar zenith angle. The Solar Light UV-Biometer and the Kipp&Zonen radiometer gave satisfactory results, while the low-cost SGLux radiometer performed better in clear sky conditions. Future studies should investigate temporal drift and stability over time.

Significant uncertainties are still associated to chemical reaction mechanisms used in atmospheric models, in particular for ROx radicals (OH, HO2, RO2). Recent measurements of radicals in forested areas characterized by low NOx (NO2, NO) concentrations indicate that models can significantly overestimate peroxy radical concentrations.1,2 These results question the ability of models to correctly simulate the oxidative capacity of the troposphere since peroxy radicals are a main source of the hydroxyl radical (OH), one of the most important oxidative species in the atmosphere.3 One possible explanation is the occurrence of heterogeneous processes (uptake of radicals) on the surface of aerosols that are either misrepresented or not included in models. While recent studies have reported uptake coefficients of HO2 on different types of aerosols, the process is not completely understood yet.Molecular dynamics combined with ab-initio calculations have been used to study HO2 reactive uptake on organic aerosols. The sticking process of HO2 and its reactivity have been modelled on a nanometer size aerosol particle.4 Those theoretical calculations provide insight into the uptake process at the molecular scale and are planned to be compared to experimental measurements carried out with an aerosol flow tube.This work is supported by the CaPPA project (Chemical and Physical Properties of the Atmosphere), funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR) through the PIA (Programme d’investissement d’avenir) and by the regional council “Hauts-de-France”. The authors also thank CPER Climibio and FEDER for their financial support. Calculations were performed using HPC resources from GENCI-TGCC (Grant 2020- A0070801859).References[1] T. Griffith et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13, 5403 (2013) [2] Mao et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 8009 (2012) [3] Stone et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 41, 6348 (2012) [4] Roose et al., ACS Earth Space Chem. 3, 380 (2019)

The Oxygenated Compounds in the Tropical Atmosphere: Variability and Exchanges (OCTAVE) campaign aimed to improve the assessment of the budget and role of oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) in tropical regions, and especially over oceans, relying on an integrated approach combining in situ measurements, satellite retrievals, and modeling. As part of OCTAVE, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured using a comprehensive suite of instruments on Reunion Island (21.07° S, 55.38° E) from 7 March to 2 May 2018. VOCs were measured at a receptor site at the Maïdo observatory during the entire campaign and at two source sites: Le Port from 19 to 24 April 2018 (source of anthropogenic emissions) and Bélouve from 25 April to 2 May 2018 (source of biogenic emissions) within a mobile lab. The Maïdo observatory is a remote background site located at an altitude of 2200 m, whereas Bélouve is located in a tropical forest to the east of Maïdo and Le Port is an urban area located northwest of Maïdo. The major objective of this study was to understand the sources and distributions of atmospheric formaldehyde (HCHO) in the Maïdo observatory on Reunion Island. To address this objective, two different approaches were used to quantify and determine the main drivers of HCHO at Maïdo. First, a chemical-kinetics-based (CKB) calculation method was used to determine the sources and sinks (biogenic, anthropogenic/primary, or secondary) of HCHO at the Maïdo site. The CKB method shows that 9% of the formaldehyde formed from biogenic emissions and 89% of HCHO had an unknown source; that is, the sources cannot be explicitly described by this method. Next, a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model was applied to characterize the VOC source contributions at Maïdo. The PMF analysis including VOCs measured at the Maïdo observatory shows that the most robust solution was obtained with five factors: secondary biogenic accounting for 17%, primary anthropogenic/solvents (24%), primary biogenic (14%), primary anthropogenic/combustion (22%), and background (23%). The main contributions to formaldehyde sources as described by the PMF model are secondary biogenic (oxidation of biogenic VOCs with 37%) and background (32%). Some assumptions were necessary concerning the high percentage of unknown HCHO sources of the CKB calculation method such as the biogenic emission factor resulting in large discrepancies between the two methods.

We present an investigation of biomass burning (BB) plumes originating from Africa and Madagascar based on measurements of a suite of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) obtained during the dry season of 2018 and 2019 at the high-altitude Maïdo observatory (21.1∘ S, 55.4∘ E, 2160 ma.s.l.), located on the remote island of La Réunion in the south-west Indian Ocean (SWIO). Biomass burning plume episodes were identified from increased acetonitrile (CH3CN) mixing ratios. Enhancement ratios (EnRs) – relative to CO – were calculated from in situ measurements for CH3CN, acetone (CH3COCH3), formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), benzene (C6H6), methanol (CH3OH) and O3. We compared the EnRs to emission ratios (ERs) – relative to CO – reported in the literature in order to estimate loss or production of these compounds during transport. For CH3CN and CH3COOH, the calculated EnRs are similar to the ERs. For C6H6 and CH3OH, the EnR is lower than the ER, indicating a net sink of these compounds which was found to be in line with the expected atmospheric lifetime. For CH3COCH3 and HCOOH, the calculated EnRs are larger than the ERs. The discrepancy reaches an order of magnitude for HCOOH (18–34 pptv ppbv−1 compared to 1.8–4.5 pptv ppbv−1). This points to significant secondary production of HCOOH during transport. The Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service (CAMS) global model simulations reproduce the temporal variation of CO mixing ratios well at the observatory but underestimate O3 and NO2 mixing ratios in the plumes by on average 16 ppbv and 60 pptv respectively. This discrepancy between modelled and measured O3 mixing ratios was attributed to (i) large uncertainties in VOC and NOx (NO+NO2) emissions due to BB in CAMS and (ii) misrepresentation of NOx recycling in the model during transport. Finally, transport of pyrogenically emitted CO is calculated with FLEXPART in order to (i) determine the mean plume age during the intrusions at the observatory and (ii) estimate the impact of BB on the pristine marine boundary layer (MBL). By multiplying the excess CO in the MBL with inferred EnRs at the observatory, we calculated the expected impact of BB on CH3CN, CH3COCH3, CH3OH and C6H6 concentrations in the MBL. These excesses constitute increases of ∼20 %–150 % compared to background measurements in the SWIO MBL reported in the literature.

The evolution of tropical cyclone activity under climate change remains a crucial scientific issue. Physical theory of cyclogenesis is limited, observational datasets suffer from heterogeneities in space and time, and state-of-the-art climate models used for future projections are still too coarse (~100 km of resolution) to simulate realistic systems. Two approaches can nevertheless be considered: 1) perform dedicated high-resolution (typically

International audience; Balloon-borne measurements of CFH water vapor, ozone and temperature and water vapor lidar measurements from the Maïdo Observatory at Réunion Island in the Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) were used to study tropical cyclones' influence on TTL composition. The balloon launches were specifically planned using a Lagrangian model and METEOSAT 7 infrared images to sample the convective outflow from Tropical Storm (TS) Corentin on 25 January 2016 and Tropical Cyclone (TC) Enawo on 3 March 2017.Comparing CFH profile to MLS monthly climatologies, water vapor anomalies were identified. Positive anomalies of water vapor and temperature, and negative anomalies of ozone between 12 and 15 km in altitude (247 to 121 hPa) originated from convectively active regions of TS Corentin and TC Enawo, one day before the planned balloon launches, according to the Lagrangian trajectories.Near the tropopause region, air masses on 25 January 2016 were anomalously dry around 100 hPa and were traced back to TS Corentin active convective region where cirrus clouds and deep convective clouds may have dried the layer. An anomalously wet layer around 68 hPa was traced back to the South East IO where a monthly water vapor anomaly of 0.5 ppbv was observed. In contrast, no water vapor anomaly was found near or above the tropopause region on 3 March 2017 over Maïdo as the tropopause region was not downwind of TC Enawo. This study compares and contrasts the impact of two tropical cyclones on the humidification of the TTL over the Southwest Indian Ocean.

This study investigates the influence of the 2015 Calbuco eruption (41.2∘ S, 72.4∘ W; Chile) on the total columnar aerosol optical properties over the Southern Hemisphere. The well-known technic of sun photometry was applied for the investigation of the transport and spatio-temporal evolution of the optical properties of the volcanic plume. The CIMEL sun photometer measurements performed at six South American and three African sites were statistically analysed. This study involves the use of the satellite observations and a back-trajectory model. The passage of the Calbuco plume is statistically detectable in the aerosol optical depth (AOD) observations obtained from sun photometer and MODIS observations. This statistical detection confirms that the majority of the plume was transported over the northeastern parts of South America and reached the South African region 1 week after the eruption. The plume impacted the southern parts of South America to a lesser extent. The highest AOD anomalies were observed over the northeastern parts of South America. Over the South African sites, the AOD anomalies induced by the spread of the plume were quite homogeneously distributed between the east and west coasts. The optical characteristics of the plume near the source region were consistent with an ash-bearing plume. Conversely, sites further from the Calbuco volcano were influenced by ash-free plume. The optical properties discussed in this paper will be used as inputs for numerical models for further investigation of the ageing of the Calbuco plume in a forthcoming study. Fil: Bègue, Nelson. Université de la Réunion; Francia. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique; Francia Fil: Shikwambana, Lerato. University of Kwazulu Natal; Sudáfrica. South African National Space Agency; Sudáfrica Fil: Bencherif, Hassan. Université de la Réunion; Francia. University of Kwazulu Natal; Sudáfrica Fil: Pallotta, Juan Vicente. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa. Ministerio de Defensa. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa. Ministerio de Defensa. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa; Argentina Fil: Sivakumar, Venkataraman. University of Kwazulu Natal; Sudáfrica Fil: Wolfram, Elian Augusto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa. Ministerio de Defensa. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa; Argentina Fil: Mbatha, Nkanyiso. University Of Zululand; Sudáfrica Fil: Orte, Facundo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa. Ministerio de Defensa. Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo Estratégico para la Defensa; Argentina Fil: Jean Du Preez, David. Université de la Réunion; Francia. University of Pretoria; Sudáfrica Fil: Ranaivombola, Marion. Université de la Réunion; Francia Fil: Piketh, Stuart. North-west University; Sudáfrica Fil: Formenti, Paola. Universite de Paris; Francia