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OBJECTIVE: Anticipation of opponent actions, through the use of advanced (i.e., pre-event) kinematic information, can be trained using video-based temporal occlusion. Typically, this involves isolated opponent skills/shots presented as trials in a random order. However, two different areas of research concerning representative task design and contextual (non-kinematic) information, suggest this structure of practice restricts expert performance. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of a sequential structure of practice during video-based training of anticipatory behavior in tennis, as well as the transfer of these skills to the performance environment. METHODS: In a pre-practice-retention-transfer design, participants viewed life-sized video of tennis rallies across practice in either a sequential order (sequential group), in which participants were exposed to opponent skills/shots in the order they occur in the sport, or a non-sequential (non-sequential group) random order. RESULTS: In the video-based retention test, the sequential group was significantly more accurate in their anticipatory judgments when the retention condition replicated the sequential structure compared to the non-sequential group. In the non-sequential retention condition, the non-sequential group was more accurate than the sequential group. In the field-based transfer test, overall decision time was significantly faster in the sequential group compared to the non-sequential group. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the benefits of a sequential structure of practice for the transfer of anticipatory behavior in tennis. We discuss the role of contextual information, and the importance of representative task design, for the testing and training of perceptual-cognitive skills in sport.

A number of novel manipulations to the design of playing uniforms were used to try to disguise the actions of penalty takers in soccer. Skilled and less-skilled soccer goalkeepers were required to anticipate penalty kick outcome while their opponent wore one of three different uniform designs that were intended to disguise the availability of potentially key information from the hip region. Variations of shapes/patterns were designed to conceal the actual alignment of the hips. Three occlusion points were used in the test film: −160 ms, −80 ms before, and at foot–ball contact. Skilled individuals reported higher accuracy scores than their less-skilled counterparts (p < .05). There were no performance decrements for the less-skilled group across the different uniform conditions (p > .05); however, the skilled group decreased their accuracy on the experimental conditions compared with the control (p < .05). Findings highlight the potential benefits of designing playing uniforms that facilitate disguise in sport.

Expert performance in highly dynamic and time pressured team sports such as soccer is underpinned by successful decision-making. Little research exists examining whether these decision-making skills associated with defensive scenarios can be transferred across similar and dissimilar sports. A shortened participation history questionnaire was used to identify 98 soccer players, 35 invasion sport players (e.g., rugby) and 52 other sport players (e.g., swimming), as well as skill level (hours of engagement/competition level). These participants completed a video-based temporal occlusion test designed to measure decision making in 11 vs. 11 defensive soccer scenarios. Results indicated that the skilled soccer players were more accurate than the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport players and skilled and less-skilled other sport players. Skilled soccer players were also more accurate than the less- skilled soccer players, with less-skilled soccer players exhibiting similar accuracy to both the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport and other sport players indicating that processes associated with decision- making in defensive scenarios may be specific to their sport.

The ability to make accurate judgments and execute effective skilled movements under severe temporal constraints are fundamental to elite performance in a number of domains including sport, military combat, law enforcement, and medicine. In two experiments, we examine the effect of stimulus strength on response time and accuracy in a temporally constrained, real-world, decision-making task. Specifically, we examine the effect of low stimulus intensity (black) and high stimulus intensity (sequin) uniform designs, worn by teammates, to determine the effect of stimulus strength on the ability of soccer players to make rapid and accurate responses. In both field- and laboratory-based scenarios, professional soccer players viewed developing patterns of play and were required to make a penetrative pass to an attacking player. Significant differences in response accuracy between uniform designs were reported in laboratory- and field-based experiments. Response accuracy was significantly higher in the sequin compared with the black uniform condition. Response times only differed between uniform designs in the laboratory-based experiment. These findings extend the literature into a real-world environment and have significant implications for the design of clothing wear in a number of domains.

Two types of vision training programmes exist, namely, generalised vision training (GVT) and sport-specific vision training (SVT). GVT programmes are designed to improve basic visual function (e.g., depth perception, motion perception and peripheral vision). A range of exercises is typically used by vision specialists such as optometrists and ophthalmologists. Although these specialists usually work to assist individuals with visual deficiencies, more recently the same methods have been used with athletes in an effort to improve sports performance. Whilst there is anecdotal support for the use of GVT programmes, there remains a paucity of empirical evidence to suggest that such training improves sports performance. Conversely, research on SVT has been shown to lead to task-specific improvements in sports performance (Smeeton et al., 2005; Williams et al., 2002). Here, we summarise scientific research that examines the utility of both types of training programmes for performance enhancement in sport.

The contextual interference (CI) effect refers to the learning benefits that occur from a random compared to blocked practice order. In this paper, the cognitive effort explanation for the CI effect was examined by investigating the role of error processing. In two experiments, a perceptual-cognitive task was used in which participants anticipated three different tennis skills across a pre-test, three practice sessions, and retention test. During practice, the skills were presented in either a random or blocked practice order. In Experiment 1, cognitive effort was examined using a probe reaction time task. In Experiment 2, cognitive effort was manipulated for two groups by inserting a cognitively demanding secondary task into the inter-trial interval. The CI effect was found in both experiments as the random groups displayed superior learning in the retention test compared to the blocked groups. Cognitive effort during practice was greater in random compared to blocked practice groups in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, greater decrements in secondary task performance following an error were reported for the random group when compared to the blocked group. The suggestion is that not only the frequent switching of tasks in randomized orders causes increased cognitive effort and the CI effect, but it is also error processing in combination with task switching. Findings extend the cognitive effort explanation for the CI effect and propose an alternative hypothesis highlighting the role of error processing.

Decision-making of officials in aesthetic sports and more specifically in Women’s Artistic Gymnastics (WAG) has received some attention within the sport psychology literature. However, research conducted has mainly utilised post-competition scores and has adapted retrospective methods of data collection to investigate judges’ thoughts and decision-making during judging. Think Aloud (TA) method (Eccles & Arsal, 2017) proposed by Ericsson and Simon (1993) is a tool to collect concurrent data of cognitive processes, and therefore could be an alternative method to collect judge decision concurrently. As a result, this thesis aimed to investigate the robustness of a novel TA method in collecting thought processes of WAG judges and to explore the decision-making differences between expert and novice judges. There were three studies included in this thesis. Study One was conducted in Malaysia 2016 utilising the Code of Points (COP) 2012-2016, whereas Study Two and Study Three were conducted simultaneously in the United Kingdom from 2017-2018 utilising the updated COP 2017-2020. Study One Study One aimed to explore the decision-making underpinning judging processes by using both concurrent and immediate retrospective methods. This examined the utilisation of TA method as a training tool to develop Malaysia based WAG judge education. Ten qualified national judges were required to verbalise their thought processes in applying execution deductions and artistry deductions by using Level 2 TA when judging a fix-sequenced video clip consists of ten routines on a singular apparatus, i.e. Balance Beam. Immediate follow-up interviews were conducted to investigate the judge’s perceptions of using TA method whilst judging. Data collected in the TA sessions and follow-up interviews underwent thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2014). During the judging process, participants verbally reported most frequently on lack of balance, bending of arms and knees, pointing of feet, confidence, rhythm and tempo, and personal style as focal points on deductions. Overall TA method was reported as an appropriate tool for use within judge education to enable deduction scores to be applied objectively. However, some participants reported performance of the primary task on judging was adversely affected by verbal overshadowing. This study informed Study Two and Study Three to investigate the decision-making differences between expert and novice judges in addition to the viability of TA method extending to all four WAG apparatus. Study Two The aim of this study was to examine decision-making differences between ten expert (international and national judge) and eight novice (regional and club judges) WAG judges based in the United Kingdom in evaluating Balance Beam (BB), Floor Exercise (FX), Uneven Bars (UB), and Vault (VT) routines using fixed-sequenced competition video clips. Participants using Level 2 TA method to verbalise all execution deductions concurrently where possible and artistry deductions by immediate retrospective whilst judging video-based routines that resembled actual competition with execution scores calculated at the end of each routine. Execution scores and verbalised deduction counts were tabulated into IBM® SPSS Statistics 24 and Microsoft Excel® for data analyses. Results showed that expert judges applied more deductions across all apparatus when compared to novice judges (p < .05). Further, verbalisation on deduction for all three types of deductions, that of general execution faults, specific apparatus deductions, and artistry deductions, were higher in counts by expert judges compared to novice judges (p < .05). These identified there were expert-novice differences in judging execution scores and applying deductions across all four apparatus in WAG as hypothesised. The highest count for deductions verbalised was recorded on the BB, followed by FX, UB, and least on VT revealing there were different deduction applications according to respective apparatus characteristics. Based on these findings, it was suggested to further explore judges’ perceptions of using TA method when judging to inform the future use of TA for both research and education purposes. Study Three This study conducted simultaneously with Study Two, aimed to investigate the perceptions of expert-novice WAG judges in using a novel TA method whilst judging video-based competition routines. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the same participants from Study Two to collect their perceptions of using TA method to verbalise execution deductions whilst judging video-based routines across all four WAG apparatus concurrently and immediate retrospectively using Level 2 TA to inform viability of TA method into future judge education development. Interview data underwent inductive and deductive thematic analyses. Five themes were generated, which were feelings of using TA method whilst judging WAG routines, perceptions of TA method viability within WAG judging, and TA method challenges within WAG judging, TA deductions across different WAG apparatus, and further consideration for learning resources adapting TA method. Both expert and novice judges reported initial apprehensions to verbalise deductions whilst judging, however, they reported become more comfortable and more used to the TA method across the sessions demonstrating skill acquisition. Furthermore, both expert and novice judges reported an increased awareness in applying more accurate execution deductions concerning of schemata and prior performance by previous gymnasts when using TA method without disrupting the natural thought process of judging in slower-pace apparatus. In addition, participants suggested TA as a viable method to collect in-event thought processes of WAG judges in slower-paced apparatus of that BB, FX, and UB concurrently. Fast-paced apparatus that of VT required the use of immediate retrospectively recall, despite concerning verbal overshadowing of TA method and existing multitask judging. Participants further suggested that a progressive judge education module adapting TA method beginning with generic training, into single skill/element evaluation, then series of gymnastics skills and dance elements towards full routines to be included in future judge education. Therefore, TA method adapted in judge education module with utility to extend beyond current course delivery and ‘paper and pen’ assessment as well as providing a learning source by which to refresh and retrain judges after accreditation examinations. The findings of these empirical studies suggest that TA method is viable to collect in-event data of cognitive processes among WAG judges when judging video-based routines. Subsequently, findings suggest that there are decision-making differences between expert and novice WAG judges related to experience and training acquired according to the level of judge accreditation. Expert judges applied significantly more execution deductions compared to novice judges across all four apparatus in WAG, i.e. BB, FX, VT, and UB. Therefore, TA method been suggested viable to scale-up novice judges in understanding their thought processes to make accurate decisions when evaluating gymnastics skills and dance elements from a practical perspective therefore suggested for TA method adaption into a pilot judge education module.

The mechanisms underpinning perceptual-cognitive skills during performance in aiming tasks were examined in the current thesis. Firstly, due to a lack of research within the area, Chapter two investigated expertise differences and the effect of task complexity on visual search behaviours, movement kinematics during golf short game shots. Near experts were found to exhibit a significantly longer total quiet eye duration (QED) than the expert group during the putting task; a difference underpinned by having a QE-pre duration of more than double that of the experts. Task complexity had no significant effect on total QED but during a perceived harder task, QE-pre was again shown to be a distinguishing factor. Using the results of Chapter 2, Chapter 3 aimed to investigate the effects of increased attentional workload on the perceptual-cognitive skills and performance of expert and novice basketballers. Specifically, the aim of the chapter was to investigate whether increased attentional load through the use of a dual-task paradigm, exhibited the same negative effects as an increase in anxiety. QED was found to be lower during high attention conditions than low attention conditions, suggesting that processing efficiency was effected by the increased cognitive stress. Therefore, using the results of the two previous chapters, Chapter 4 aimed to investigate whether QE training under high attentional load could protect individuals somewhat from the negative effects of increased anxiety when performing under pressure in competition. It was found that both QE training groups increased their QED from pre-test to retention, however during a high attention post-test, only the QE high attention trained group maintained their QED’s when compared to QE low attention and technical trained groups. The findings have major implications for both theory and practice, whilst extending the research in the area of perceptual-cognitive skills.

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Perceptual-cognitive skills have been shown to contribute towards elite performance in multiple domains and sports, including cricket. However, research examining these skills in cricket has predominantly focused on batters, with little attention devoted to extensively exploring the factors that contribute towards expert cricket umpiring. In this thesis the ���expert performance approach��� proposed by Ericsson & Smith (1991) was used to develop a series of studies that examined the influence of perceptual-cognitive skills in leg before wicket (LBW) decisions made by cricket umpires. In Chapter 2, eye movement data was collected from expert and novice cricket umpires whilst they performed a simulated LBW decision making task. In addition to making more accurate decisions, the expert umpires demonstrated a tendency to anchor their gaze on the stumps, whereas the novices showcased a preference to fixate on the pitch. In Chapter 3 a different sample of expert umpires were required in one condition to make a ���no-ball��� verdict prior to an LBW decision and in another condition to exclusively make the LBW decision with no preceding task. The ���no-ball��� task aimed to engage the shifting function of the umpire���s working memory, to better mirror match demands. The purpose of this Chapter was to examine whether switching from the ���no-ball��� task to the LBW task would negatively affect the umpire���s decision-making performance in line with the ���switch cost��� evidenced in cognitive psychology literature. In corroboration with the switch-cost, umpires were less accurate at determining where the ball bounced on the pitch when required to task- switch. Also, in line with previous research, following the task-switch the umpires were more likely to allocate their gaze towards ���other locations��� compared to when performing the LBW task exclusively on its own. Despite this, umpires still displayed a tendency to anchor their gaze on the stumps in both conditions. Chapter 4 utilised findings from Chapters 2 and 3, and involved the implementation of a Quiet Eye training intervention in novice umpires with the aim of augmenting LBW decision making. To compare the effectiveness of this intervention, novice umpires were allocated to either a Quiet Eye Training, Technical Training or Control group. The Quiet Eye intervention led to improved LBW performance across all components of the task immediately following training, and these effects persisted in a one-week retention test. Immediately after the intervention, the Technical Training group reported improvements on determining where the ball would have travelled post ball- pad impact however these effects were lost in a one-week retention test. The Control group reported no changes in accuracy across all three experimental phases. With all the experimental chapters considered, this thesis provides insights into the perceptual- cognitive skills cricket umpires use to cope with the unique demands on LBW decision making, and how these skills can be transferred to novice performers to expedite more accurate decisions. These data have implications for improving decision making throughout the cricketing pyramid, as well as theoretical implications for understanding the role of visual attention in complex decision making tasks.

The aim of the current thesis was to examine the role of sensorimotor integration during sensorimotor learning and control processes in autism spectrum disorders. Autistic participants were matched (IQ, age, gender) with control participants across three experimental chapters (chapters three-five) within the contexts of motor learning, imitation and observational practice. An additional control experiment (chapter two), which examined observational practice, was also completed in order to determine suitable data collection and analysis techniques. In Chapter Two it was confirmed that atypical biological kinematics properties are coded during observational practice via underlying sensorimotor processes, rather than spatial encoding of peak velocity via processes associated with stimulus- response compatibility. In Chapter Three it was observed that autistic participants can successfully form new internal action models, but their movements are characterised by increased variability in the spatial position of peak acceleration. In Chapter Four, it was shown that autism participants were able improve their imitation of atypical biological kinematics when presented in a fixed trial-order. Suggesting that in part imitation difficulties in autism may be related to differences in sensorimotor processing and integration. In Chapter Five it was observed that individuals with autism, like typically developed controls, can code atypical biological kinematics via observational practice. There are however potential differences in the processing of reafference when updating an existing internal action model. The findings of the current thesis will be summarised and critically evaluated with regards to the current literature. Theoretical implications will be considered, and potential future directions and research applications will be discussed.

The aim of this doctoral research was to provide new insights into sensorimotor development and functioning in autistic adults. First, classification measures (Chapter Two) were used to verify the diagnosis of autism, and automatic imitation (Chapter Three) was used to verify an intact perception-action link. In Chapter Four, in Twists, the trampolining group (those with sensorimotor experience) had a First Fixation Location on the incongruent model on the first trial but had a longer First Fixation Duration on the congruent model across the trials. Whereas the non-trampolining group (those without sensorimotor experience) did not attend to either model significantly differently in their First Fixation Location but had a longer First Fixation Duration on the incongruent model. In Chapter Five, for familiar actions, the First Fixation Location was on the autistic model on the first trial, and First Fixation Duration was longer on the autistic model across the trials. This indicates that the sensorimotor system in autistic individuals is attuned to autistic kinematics, due to attention being drawn to the autistic model and it being evaluated for longer. For the skilled actions across the trials, the First Fixation Location was on the typical model, and for the Percentage of Total Fixation Duration the typical model was fixated on for proportionately longer. This was then further investigated in Chapter Six, in which participants ability to pursue point-light displays performing trampolining actions was examined. Sensorimotor experience did not result in superior pursuit of the point-light displays; the trampolining and non-trampolining groups performed similarly with no significant differences in the number or duration of eye movements. Therefore, the result of sensorimotor experience is superior identification and initial evaluation seen in the first fixation but does not have a significant effect past this point. Taken together, it can be suggested that action observation is intact in moderate to severely autistic adults through experience dependent attentional differences. This will add to the literature and understanding of minimally verbal adults with moderate to severe autism, a vastly understudied population.