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Mountainous areas are popular destinations for outdoor recreation, which can have environmental impacts on wildlife. We assessed research studies about the impacts of recreation on mammals and birds in montane, subalpine and alpine zones using a systematic literature review methodology to identify trends and gaps. We found that research on this topic so far has concentrated on specific regions, seasons, infrastructure, activities and taxa. Most of the 67 articles revived were from Europe (52%) or Northern America (37%) and mainly from subalpine habitats (49%), focused on recreation infrastructure (51%) and mainly done either in summer (47%) or winter (25%). Research was not taxonomically representative but focused on cervids (Cervidae, 21%), bovids (Bovidae, 17%) and grouse (Phasianidae, 8%). It included few species of high conservation value. Almost all research (91%) found significant effects, which were predominantly negative (82%). Infrastructure, such as trails, had the most evidence for negative effects, followed by activities such as hiking and backcountry skiing. Much of the research looked at impacts at individual (42%) or population level (40%) responses, such as changes in behaviour or reductions in habitat, with limited research on communities (7%) or for popular activities such as mountain biking. We invite researchers to make use of emerging technologies, such as remote sensing, and to address research gaps including more regions, taxa and activities. Utilizing current research, land managers can implement more evidence-based strategies to minimise impacts of recreation and mitigate human-wildlife conflicts.

Significance StatementPeople engage with nature in a range of ways, including sharing their experiences, values and concerns about specific landscapes on social media. For instance, on Twitter, governments, news, conservation, management, tourism and other organizations, as well as individuals share short 280-character microblogs (tweets) about a range of issues. We assessed public debate on Twitter about the Blue Mountains National Park in Australia to illustrate the benefits, but also limitations and concerns with the use of this, still novel, method for public engagement. Using a quantitative analysis of the tweets-content we identified common topics and emotions, including similarities and differences between the tweets posted by Australians and those from other countries regarding this globally important and popular mountain landscapes.

Mountain biking and hiking are popular, but both recreational activities can contribute to the unintentional dispersal of seeds including non-native plants that cause environmental harm (e.g. environmental weeds). Addressing the requirement for more information about the ecological impacts of recreational activities, seed dispersal from mountain biking and hiking were compared under different climatic and environmental conditions. Seeds from a range of graminids and forbs were found to attach to the mountain bike, rider and hiker, including environmental weed seeds, on trails and in-field in montane Australia. While the composition of seeds differed between the two activities, no significant differences were found between traits, such as natives or environmental weed, graminids or forbs, perennial or annual, large or small, attachment or no attachment structures, although sample sizes were small. Few seeds attached to the mountain bike, rider or hiker on dry trails, some seeds attached when trails were wet, but more seeds attached when riding/hiking off trail in a field. Cleaning clothing and bikes and avoiding areas with environmental weed seeding could reduce the risk of this type of unintentional human mediated dispersal, but compliance with such measures may be challenging. Given the increasing popularity of mountain biking and the current controversy about the relative impacts of mountain biking in areas of high conservation concern, additional research assessing severity, duration and range of impacts of mountain biking on soil, wildlife, waterways and vegetation is critical.