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Background Sulforaphane (SFN) is a dietary isothiocyanate, derived from glucoraphanin, present in cruciferous vegetables belonging to the Brassica genus. It is a biologically active phytochemical that acts as a nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) inducer. Thus, it has been reported to have multiple protective functions including anticancer responses and protection against a toxic agent's action. Purpose The present work systematically reviewed and synthesised the protective properties of sulforaphane against a toxic agent. This review reveals the mechanism of the action of SFN in each organ or system. Methods The PRISMA guideline was followed in this sequence: researched literature, organised retrieved documents, abstracted relevant information, assessed study quality and bias, synthesised data, and prepared a comprehensive report. Searches were conducted on Science Direct and PubMed using the keywords "Sulforaphane" AND (“protective effects” OR “protection against”). Results Reports showed that liver and the nervous system are the target organs on which attention was focused, and this might be due to the key role of oxidative stress in liver and neurodegenerative diseases. However, protective activities have also been demonstrated in the lungs, heart, immune system, kidneys, and endocrine system. SFN exerts its protective effects by activating the Nrf2 pathway, which enhances antioxidant defenses and reduces oxidative stress. It also suppresses inflammation by decreasing interleukin production. Moreover, SFN inhibits apoptosis by preventing caspase 3 cleavage and increasing Bcl2 levels. Overall, SFN demonstrates multifaceted mechanisms to counteract the adverse effects of toxic agents. Conclusion SFN has potential clinical applications as a chemoprotective agent. Nevertheless, more studies are necessary to set the safe doses of SFN in humans.

Propyl-propane thiosulfonate (PTSO), an antioxidant organosulfur compound present in the genus Allium, has become a potential natural additive for food and feed, as well as a possible biopesticide for pest control in plants. A toxicological assessment is necessary to verify its safety for livestock, consumers, and the environment. As part of the risk assessment of PTSO, this study was designed to explore its potential reproductive toxicity in mice following the OECD 416 guideline. The investigation spans two generations to comprehensively evaluate potential reproductive, teratogenic, and hereditary effects. A total of 80 CD1 mice per sex and generation were subjected to PTSO exposure during three phases (premating, gestation, and lactation). This evaluation encompassed three dose levels: 14, 28, and 55 mg PTSO/kg b.w./day, administered through the feed. No clinical changes or mortality attributed to the administration of PTSO were observed in the study. Some changes in the body weight and food consumption were observed, but not related to sex or in a dose-dependent manner. The two parental generations (F0, F1) exhibited normal reproductive performance, and the offspring (F1 and F2) were born without any abnormalities. The serum sexual hormone levels (progesterone -P-, testosterone -T-, estradiol -E2-, follicular stimulating hormone -FSH-, and luteinizing hormone -LH-) were in a normal range. Although significant changes were observed in the sperm analysis in the case of F0 group, no variation was found for F1 group, and no alterations in fertility were recorded either. The absolute organ weights and relative organ weight/body weight and organ weight/brain weight ratios, and the complete histopathological study, showed no significant alterations in males and females for all the generations considered. Considering all the results obtained, PTSO is not considered a reproductive or developmental toxicant in mice under the assayed conditions. These results support the go

Improvement Cycles in the Classroom (ICIC) has been implemented in the subject of scientific police and forensic toxicology for the 2022/23 academic year. The main objective of this ICIC is to introduce a new methodological model in which real cases are implemented to be solved guided and scheduled by the teacher as a way of reinforcing the theoretical knowledge of the students, in addition the content of the subject has been improved. Asking questions to capture the student's attention and provide an appropriate approach to the content. The ICIC has been applied correctly in the vast majority of the sessions, except for 2 sessions in which the main problem was the lack of time. Regarding the 3 branches of the content, it has been possible to notice a great difference in difficulties, especially with the last thematic block (medications). Feedback from the students has been very good, and in the learning stairs it has been possible to verify that they have progressed correctly, demonstrating a good evaluation of their learning. In conclusion, I will continue trying to improve these subjects in future ICICs by applying better adjusted teaching models., Se ha implementado un Ciclo de Mejora en el Aula (CIMA) en la asignatura Policía científica y Toxicología Forense para el curso 2022/23. El objetivo principal de este CIMA es introducir un nuevo modelo metodológico en el que se implementaran casos reales a resolver guiados y pautados por el profesor, como manera de reforzar el conocimiento teórico de los alumnos, además se ha mejorado el contenido de la asignatura añadiendo preguntas para captar la atención del estudiante y aportar un enfoque adecuado al contenido. El CIMA se ha aplicado correctamente en la gran mayoría de las sesiones, exceptuando 2 en la que el principal problema fue la falta de tiempo. En cuanto a las 3 ramas del contenido, se ha podido notar una gran diferencia de dificultades, en especial con el último bloque temático (los medicamentos). El feedback con el alumnado ha sido muy bueno, y en las escaleras de aprendizaje se ha podido comprobar que han avanzado correctamente demostrando una buena evaluación. En conclusión, seguiremos intentando mejorar esta asignatura en futuros CIMAs aplicando modelos docentes mejor ajustados.

The " Scientific dissemination conference: Contributions of Toxicology in substance safety research and for society" were held on May 19th, 2023 at the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University of Seville, thanks to a financial support received by the VII Plan Propio of the University of Seville (VII PPIT-US) for scientific dissemination activities. The objective was to disseminate scientific knowledge among our students by highly qualified teaching and scientific personnel, and also to inform society in general of the high-level scientific research work that is being carried out in the University of Seville. The activity was aimed at students of the subjects of "Toxicology", "Chemoinformatics, Research and History of Pharmacy", " Laboratory of Pharmacy" (of the Degree in Pharmacy, Degree in Optics and Optometry, and Double Degree in Pharmacy and Optics and Optometry), and the subjects of "Toxicology of the Drugs of Abuse" or "Introduction to Forensic Sciences" (Degree in Criminology). During the Conference, which lasted 5.5 hours, 6 oral communications were given on graphene, cyanotoxins, alliaceous additives in human and animal feed, stilbenes in wines, or biopesticides. All of them were synthesized in informative triptychs distributed among the attendees for their dissemination in their social environment. Likewise, 2 invited presentations were given by experts in Forensic and Environmental Toxicology, respectively. The activity had 75 attendees and the results of the surveys generally showed a high degree of satisfaction with them, showing the Conference as an enriching outreach activity, due to the variety of topics covered, the new knowledge acquired and the approach to research and interest aroused among attendees., Las “Jornadas de divulgación científica: Aportaciones de la Toxicología en la investigación de la seguridad de las sustancias y para la sociedad” se celebraron el 19 de mayo de 2023 en la Facultad de Farmacia de la Universidad de Sevilla, gracias a una Ayuda recibida por el VII Plan Propio de la Universidad de Sevilla (VII PPIT-US) para actividades de divulgación científica. El objetivo fue divulgar entre nuestros alumnos los conocimientos científicos por parte de personal docente e investigador altamente cualificado, y también dar a conocer a la sociedad en general el trabajo de investigación científica de alto nivel que se está realizando en la US. La actividad iba dirigida a los alumnos de las asignaturas de “Toxicología”, “Quimioinformática, Investigación e Historia de la Farmacia”, “Laboratorio de Farmacia” (del Grado en Farmacia, Grado en Óptica y Optometría, y Doble Grado en Farmacia y Óptica y Optometría), y las asignaturas de “Toxicología de las Drogas de Abuso” o “Introducción a las Ciencias Forenses” (Grado en Criminología). Durante las Jornadas, que duraron 5,5 horas, se impartieron un total de 6 comunicaciones orales con diferente temática: el grafeno, las cianotoxinas, los aditivos aliáceos en alimentación humana y animal, los estilbenos en los vinos, o los bioplaguicidas; todas ellas sintetizadas en unos trípticos divulgativos repartidos entre los asistentes para su divulgación en su entorno social. Asimismo, se realizaron 2 ponencias invitadas por parte de expertos en Toxicología Forense y Ambiental, respectivamente. La actividad contó con casi un total de 75 asistentes y los resultados de las encuestas mostraron en general un alto grado de satisfacción con las mismas, mostrando las Jornadas como una enriquecedora actividad de divulgación científica, por la variedad de temas tratados, los nuevos conocimientos adquiridos y el acercamiento a la investigación e interés suscitado entre los asistentes.

Propyl-propane-thiosulfonate (PTSO) is an organosulfur compound found inAllium spp. Due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, PTSO has been proposed for applications in the agri-food sector, such as feed additive. However, its use with commercial purposes depends on its toxicity evaluation. The present work aimed to perform a pilot-study of toxicokinetic profile of PTSO combining in silico and in vitro techniques, important steps in the risk assessment process. In silico ecotoxicity studies were also performed considering the importance of the environmental impact of the compound before its commercial use. First, an analytical method has been developed and validated to determine the original compound and its metabolites by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The phase I and II metabolism of PTSO was predicted using Meta-Pred Web Server. For the phase I metabolism, rat (male and female) and human liver microsomes were incubated with PTSO and NADPH regeneration system. Furthermore, in the phase II, microsomes were incubated with PTSO and glutathione or uridine 5′- diphosphoglucuronic acid. The analysis revealed the presence of propylpropane thiosulfinate (PTS) originated by redox reaction in phase I, and two conjugates from the phase II: S-propylmercaptoglutathione (GSSP) and S-propylmercaptocysteine (CSSP). Additionally, considering the environmental fate of PTSO and its metabolites, the ADME parameters and the potential ecotoxicity were also predicted using in silico softwares. The results of the ecotoxicity in silico study evidenced that the metabolism induced the formation of detoxified metabolites from the parent compound, except for dimercaprol and 3-mercaptopropane1,2-diol. Further in vivo assays are needed to confirm this prediction.

Las “Jornadas de divulgación científica: Aportaciones de la Toxicología en la investigación de la seguridad de las sustancias y para la sociedad” se celebraron el 19 de mayo de 2023 en la Facultad de Farmacia de la Universidad de Sevilla, gracias a una Ayuda recibida por el VII Plan Propio de la Universidad de Sevilla (VII PPIT-US) para actividades de divulgación científica. El objetivo fue divulgar entre nuestros alumnos los conocimientos científicos por parte de personal docente e investigador altamente cualificado, y también dar a conocer a la sociedad en general el trabajo de investigación científica de alto nivel que se está realizando en la US. La actividad iba dirigida a los alumnos de las asignaturas de “Toxicología”, “Quimioinformática, Investigación e Historia de la Farmacia”, “Laboratorio de Farmacia” (del Grado en Farmacia, Grado en Óptica y Optometría, y Doble Grado en Farmacia y Óptica y Optometría), y las asignaturas de “Toxicología de las Drogas de Abuso” o “Introducción a las Ciencias Forenses” (Grado en Criminología). Durante las Jornadas, que duraron 5,5 horas, se impartieron un total de 6 comunicaciones orales con diferente temática: el grafeno, las cianotoxinas, los aditivos aliáceos en alimentación humana y animal, los estilbenos en los vinos, o los bioplaguicidas; todas ellas sintetizadas en unos trípticos divulgativos repartidos entre los asistentes para su divulgación en su entorno social. Asimismo, se realizaron 2 ponencias invitadas por parte de expertos en Toxicología Forense y Ambiental, respectivamente. La actividad contó con casi un total de 75 asistentes y los resultados de las encuestas mostraron en general un alto grado de satisfacción con las mismas, mostrando las Jornadas como una enriquecedora actividad de divulgación científica, por la variedad de temas tratados, los nuevos conocimientos adquiridos y el acercamiento a la investigación e interés suscitado entre los asistentes., The " Scientific dissemination conference: Contributions of Toxicology in substance safety research and for society" were held on May 19th, 2023 at the Faculty of Pharmacy of the University of Seville, thanks to a financial support received by the VII Plan Propio of the University of Seville (VII PPIT-US) for scientific dissemination activities. The objective was to disseminate scientific knowledge among our students by highly qualified teaching and scientific personnel, and also to inform society in general of the high-level scientific research work that is being carried out in the University of Seville. The activity was aimed at students of the subjects of "Toxicology", "Chemoinformatics, Research and History of Pharmacy", " Laboratory of Pharmacy" (of the Degree in Pharmacy, Degree in Optics and Optometry, and Double Degree in Pharmacy and Optics and Optometry), and the subjects of "Toxicology of the Drugs of Abuse" or "Introduction to Forensic Sciences" (Degree in Criminology). During the Conference, which lasted 5.5 hours, 6 oral communications were given on graphene, cyanotoxins, alliaceous additives in human and animal feed, stilbenes in wines, or biopesticides. All of them were synthesized in informative triptychs distributed among the attendees for their dissemination in their social environment. Likewise, 2 invited presentations were given by experts in Forensic and Environmental Toxicology, respectively. The activity had 75 attendees and the results of the surveys generally showed a high degree of satisfaction with them, showing the Conference as an enriching outreach activity, due to the variety of topics covered, the new knowledge acquired and the approach to research and interest aroused among attendees.

The incidence and interest of cyanobacteria are increasing nowadays because they are able to produce some toxic secondary metabolites known as cyanotoxins. Among them, the presence of cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is especially relevant, as it seems to cause damage at different levels in the organisms: the nervous system being the one most recently reported. Usually, the effects of the cyanotoxins are studied, but not those exerted by cyanobacterial biomass. The aim of the present study was to assess the cytotoxicity and oxidative stress generation of one cyanobacterial extract of R. raciborskii non-containing CYN (CYN−), and compare its effects with those exerted by a cyanobacterial extract of C. ovalisporum containing CYN (CYN+) in the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line. Moreover, the analytical characterization of potential cyanotoxins and their metabolites that are present in both extracts of these cultures was also carried out using Ultrahigh Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, in tandem (UHPLC-MS/MS). The results show a reduction of cell viability concentration- and time-dependently after 24 and 48 h of exposure with CYN+ being five times more toxic than CYN−. Furthermore, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased with time (0–24 h) and CYN concentration (0–1.11 µg/mL). However, this rise was only obtained after the highest concentrations and times of exposure to CYN−, while this extract also caused a decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, which might be an indication of the compensation of the oxidative stress response. This study is the first one performed in vitro comparing the effect

The organosulfur compound propyl-propane thiosulfonate (PTSO), mainly found in Allium cepa, has a promising use in the agrifood industry. To confirm its safety for livestock, consumers, and environment, toxicological assessment is needed. In this regard, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are in the spotlight of research. Therefore, as part of the risk assessment of PTSO, in the present work, an in vivo study was performed in mice exposed to PTSO to investigate its potential reproductive toxicity considering fertility, genetic and endocrine endpoints. Five-weeks-old CD1 mice (80 males, 80 females) were exposed for 11 or 16 weeks (males or females, respectively) to different doses of PTSO (0, 14, 28 and 55 mg PTSO/kg b.w./day; 20 animals per group and sex) through the food pellets. No clinical observations or mortality and no changes in absolute organ weights and relative organ weights/body weight or brain ratios occurred during the study. The estrous cycle did not undergo any significant toxicologically relevant change. Most of the sex hormones displayed normal values. Some alterations in the expression of some genes related to reproduction is only observed in females, but they do not appear to have consequences in the development of sex organs. Docking results showed the impossibility of stable binding to estrogen and androgen receptors. Considering all the results obtained, the safe profile of PTSO can be confirmed for different agrifood applications at the conditions assayed.

Se ha implementado un Ciclo de Mejora en el Aula (CIMA) en la asignatura Policía científica y Toxicología Forense para el curso 2022/23. El objetivo principal de este CIMA es introducir un nuevo modelo metodológico en el que se implementaran casos reales a resolver guiados y pautados por el profesor, como manera de reforzar el conocimiento teórico de los alumnos, además se ha mejorado el contenido de la asignatura añadiendo preguntas para captar la atención del estudiante y aportar un enfoque adecuado al contenido. El CIMA se ha aplicado correctamente en la gran mayoría de las sesiones, exceptuando 2 en la que el principal problema fue la falta de tiempo. En cuanto a las 3 ramas del contenido, se ha podido notar una gran diferencia de dificultades, en especial con el último bloque temático (los medicamentos). El feedback con el alumnado ha sido muy bueno, y en las escaleras de aprendizaje se ha podido comprobar que han avanzado correctamente demostrando una buena evaluación. En conclusión, seguiré intentando mejorar esta asignatura en futuros CIMAs aplicando modelos docentes mejor ajustados., An Improvement Cycles in Classroom (ICIC) has been implemented in the scientific police and forensic toxicology subject for the 2022/23 academic year. The main objective of this ICIC is to introduce a new methodological model in which real cases are implemented to be solved guided and scheduled by the teacher as a way of reinforcing the theoretical knowledge of the students, in addition the content of the subject has been improved. Asking questions to capture the student’s attention and provide an appropriate approach to the content. The ICIC has been applied correctly in the vast majority of the sessions, except for 2 sessions in which the main problem was the lack of time. Regarding the 3 branches of the content, it has been possible to notice a great difference in difficulties, especially with the last thematic block (medications). The feedback with the students has been very good, and in the learning stairs it has been possible to verify that they have progressed correctly, demonstrating a good evaluation of their learning. In conclusion, I will continue trying to improve these subjects in future ICICs by applying better adjusted teaching models.

Se ha implementado un Ciclo de Mejora en el Aula (CIMA) en la asignatura Policía científica y Toxicología Forense para el curso 2022/23. El objetivo principal de este CIMA es introducir un nuevo modelo metodológico en el que se implementaran casos reales a resolver guiados y pautados por el profesor, como manera de reforzar el conocimiento teórico de los alumnos, además se ha mejorado el contenido de la asignatura añadiendo preguntas para captar la atención del estudiante y aportar un enfoque adecuado al contenido. El CIMA se ha aplicado correctamente en la gran mayoría de las sesiones, exceptuando 2 en la que el principal problema fue la falta de tiempo. En cuanto a las 3 ramas del contenido, se ha podido notar una gran diferencia de dificultades, en especial con el último bloque temático (los medicamentos). El feedback con el alumnado ha sido muy bueno, y en las escaleras de aprendizaje se ha podido comprobar que han avanzado correctamente demostrando una buena evaluación. En conclusión, seguiremos intentando mejorar esta asignatura en futuros CIMAs aplicando modelos docentes mejor ajustados., Improvement Cycles in the Classroom (ICIC) has been implemented in the subject of scientific police and forensic toxicology for the 2022/23 academic year. The main objective of this ICIC is to introduce a new methodological model in which real cases are implemented to be solved guided and scheduled by the teacher as a way of reinforcing the theoretical knowledge of the students, in addition the content of the subject has been improved. Asking questions to capture the student's attention and provide an appropriate approach to the content. The ICIC has been applied correctly in the vast majority of the sessions, except for 2 sessions in which the main problem was the lack of time. Regarding the 3 branches of the content, it has been possible to notice a great difference in difficulties, especially with the last thematic block (medications). Feedback from the students has been very good, and in the learning stairs it has been possible to verify that they have progressed correctly, demonstrating a good evaluation of their learning. In conclusion, I will continue trying to improve these subjects in future ICICs by applying better adjusted teaching models.

Organosulfur compounds (OSCs) are secondary metabolites produced by different Allium species which present important biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, antispasmodic, etc. In recent years, their use has been promoted in the agri-food industry as a substitute for synthetic preservatives, increasing potential accumulative exposure to consumers. Before their application in the food industry, it is necessary to pass a safety assessment as specified by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). This work reviews the scientific literature on OSCs regarding their in vitro toxicity evaluation following PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews. Four electronic research databases were searched (Web of Science, Scopus, Science Database and PubMed) and a total of 43 works were selected according to predeterminate inclusion and exclusion criteria. Different data items and the risk of bias for each study were included. Currently, there are very few in vitro studies focused on investigating the potential toxicity of OSCs. Most research studies aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of OSCs to elucidate their antiproliferative effects focusing on their therapeutic aspects using cancer cell lines as the main experimental model. The results showed that diallyl disulfide (DADS) is the compound most studied, followed by diallyl trisulfide (DATS), diallyl sulfide (DAS), Allicin and Ajoene. Only 4 studies have been performed specifically to explore the safety of OSCs for agri-food applications, and genotoxicity studies are limited. More toxicity studies of OSCs are necessary to ensure consumers safety and should mainly be focused on the evaluation of genotoxicity and long-term toxicity effects.

The organosulfur compounds (OSC) extracted from Allium spp. exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties. The agri-food industry is taking advantage of these properties by using them as natural feed and food additives. In the present work, an acute and a subchronic 90-days toxicity studies have been conducted for the first time to assess the safety of the OSC propyl-propane-thiosulfinate (PTS). Both studies were carried out following the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development test guidelines (425 and 408, respectively). The acute study provided a maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of 175 mg/kg and the subchronic study established the Non Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) ≥ 55 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)/day in both sexes. In addition, the subchronic study performed on rats exposed to 14, 28 and 55 mg/kg b.w./day PTS, revealed no changes in any of the hematological parameters measured as well as no differences in body weight and water/food consumption. However, biochemical parameters were altered in some groups, although they were not biologically significant (Ca2+ in female rats, and the thyroids hormones T3 and T4 in rat males). Furthermore, the histopathological assessment evidenced no abnormality on the gastrointestinal, respiratory, lymphoid, urinary, circulatory, nervous, musculoskeletal, and reproductive systems.

Propyl-propanethiosulfinate (PTS) is a component of Allium essential oils. This organosulfur molecule can be used as a feed additive to decrease the appearance of bacterial resistances caused by the residues of antibiotics. In previous in vitro genotoxicity studies, contradictory results were reported for PTS. In this work, the in vivo genotoxicity of PTS in male and female rats was assessed for the first time, following OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) guidelines. After oral administration (doses: 5.5, 17.4, and 55.0 mg/kg PTS body weight), a combination of the micronucleus (MN) assay (OECD 474) in bone marrow and the standard and enzyme-modified comet assay (OECD 489) was performed. After necropsy, histopathological studies were also carried out. The results did not show the in vivo genotoxicity of PTS at any doses assayed, revealed by the absence of increased MN, and DNA strand breaks or oxidative DNA damage in the standard and enzyme-modified comet assays. The histopathological study revealed that only the highest dose tested (55.0 mg/kg) in the liver and all dose groups in the stomach presented minimal pathological lesions in the organs studied. Consequently, the present work confirms that PTS is not genotoxic at the doses assayed, and it is a promising natural alternative to synthetic preservatives and antibiotics in animal feed.

Propyl-propane-thiosulfonate (PTSO) and Propyl-propane-thiosulfinate (PTS) are organosulfur compounds used to supplement the diet of livestock because of their beneficial effects on feed palatability, their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antimethanogenic activities. Besides, antibiotic residues in the environment can be reduced by using these natural bioactive compounds. The objective of this study was to optimize the extraction parameters for the analysis of PTSO and PTS in feed matrices by performing a solid-liquid extraction and quantification by Ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Optimization was performed using the Response Surface Methodology on a Box–Behnken experimental design, optimizing the following parameters: solvent:sample ratios and evaporation temperature set for the rotary evaporator. The method was validated for 3 concentration levels for both PTSO (100, 500, 1000 ng g−1) and PTS (500, 1150, 2300 ng g−1). The highest recoveries of PTSO and PTS were obtained using 12.5 mL of 100% acetonitrile, stirring for 15 min, and an evaporation temperature of 20 °C. The validated method was further applied to detect and quantify these compounds in different feed matrices. In conclusion, this is the first study to simultaneously analyze PTSO and PTS at low concentrations, employing a sensitive technique such as UPLC-MS/MS.

Propyl-propane-thiosulfonate (PTSO) is one of the main organosulfur compounds present in Allium essentials oil. Different applications in the food sector have been proposed for PTSO, such as food and feed additive and as active packaging. However, the authorization of its use depends on its toxicity profile. Thus, as a part of its safety assessment, in this work a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study has been conducted for the first time in rats following the OECD guideline 408. PTSO was administered to groups of 10 male and 10 female rats at dose levels of 0, 14, 28, and 55 mg/kg/day. No clinical signs or mortality and no changes in body weight, food consumption and feed conversion efficiency were detected through the study. Moreover, no treatment-related changes in hematological and biochemical parameters were observed, for either sex or dose groups. The histopathology study performed revealed no differences in organ weights, and no morphological and histopathological changes were observed. Based on these results, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of PTSO was judged to be ≥ 55 mg/kg/day for both sexes.

Las cianobacterias son un diverso grupo de microorganismos procariotas cuya proliferación en masa da lugar a floraciones en las que se liberan sus metabolitos secundarios, entre los que destacamos las cianotoxinas, como las Microcistinas (MCs) y la Cilindrospermopsina (CYN), afectando así a la población expuesta, generando diferentes efectos tóxicos, además de crear problemas de índole tanto medioambiental, como económico.