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Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflict of interest: None, for all the authors. Ethics approval: All procedures performed in the study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Consent for publication: Informed consent was obtained from the patient for the anonymous use of his clinical, imaging and histologic data for publication.

Critically ill COVID-19 patients can develop invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA). Considering the weaknesses of diagnostic tests/case definitions, as well as the results from autoptic studies, there is a debate on the real burden of aspergillosis in COVID-19 patients. We performed a retrospective observational study on mechanically ventilated critically ill COVID-19 patients in an intensive care unit (ICU). The primary objective was to determine the burden of CAPA by comparing clinical diagnosis (through case definitions/diagnostic algorithms) with autopsy results. Twenty patients out of 168 (11.9%) developed probable CAPA. Seven (35%) were females, and the median age was 66 [IQR 59-72] years. Thirteen CAPA patients (65%) died and, for six, an autopsy was performed providing a proven diagnosis in four cases. Histopathology findings suggest a focal pattern, rather than invasive and diffuse fungal disease, in the context of prominent viral pneumonia. In a cohort of mechanically ventilated patients with probable CAPA, by performing a high rate of complete autopsies, invasive aspergillosis was not always proven. It is still not clear whether aspergillosis is the major driver of mortality in patients with CAPA.

Background: Autoptic pulmonary findings have been described in severe COVID-19 patients, but evidence regarding the correlation between clinical picture and lung histopathologic patterns is still weak., Methods: This was a retrospective cohort observational study conducted at the referral center for infectious diseases in northern Italy. Full lung autoptic findings and clinical data of patients who died from COVID-19 were analyzed. Lung histopathologic patterns were scored according to the extent of tissue damage. To consider coexisting histopathologic patterns, hierarchical clustering of histopathologic findings was applied., Results: Whole pulmonary examination was available in 75 out of 92 full autopsies. Forty-eight hospitalized patients (64%), 44 from ICU and four from the medical ward, had complete clinical data. The histopathologic patterns had a time-dependent distribution with considerable overlap among patterns. Duration of positive-pressure ventilation (p < 0.0001), mean positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) (p = 0.007), worst serum albumin (p = 0.017), interleukin 6 (p = 0.047), and kidney SOFA (p = 0.001) differed among histopathologic clusters. The amount of PEEP for long-lasting ventilatory treatment was associated with the cluster showing the largest areas of early and late proliferative diffuse alveolar damage. No pharmacologic interventions or comorbidities affected the lung histopathology., Conclusions: Our study draws a comprehensive link between the clinical and pulmonary histopathologic findings in a large cohort of COVID-19 patients. These results highlight that the positive end-expiratory pressures and the duration of the ventilatory treatment correlate with lung histopathologic patterns, providing new clues to the knowledge of the pathophysiology of severe SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Parathyroid lipoadenoma is a very rare cause of primary hyperparathyroidism. Preoperative imaging techniques often fail to detect such lesions, and even during surgery they can be misinterpreted just as fat tissue. A 62-year-old woman clinically monitored for primary hyperparathyroidism, with hypertension and a left nephrectomy for hydrouretheronephrosis caused by recurrent kidney stones. A neck ultrasound showed a nodule consistent with left parathyroid of 9 × 5 mm, which was not confirmed on single-photon-emission computed tomography/computed tomography (CT) scan. On surgery, a voluminous lesion with adipose appearance and texture was removed. Frozen sections and intraoperative parathyroid hormone (PTH) confirmed such lesion to be a parathyroid lipoadenoma. Parathyroid lipoadenomas are difficult to localize preoperatively. Sometimes they can be seen by ultrasound scan as hyperechoich lesion, but scintigraphy and CT often fail to identify them. Only the awareness of such lesions and the use of intraoperative PTH can avoid unnecessary extensive cervical exploration., (Published by Oxford University Press and JSCR Publishing Ltd. © The Author(s) 2021.)

The release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), a process termed NETosis, avoids pathogen spread but may cause tissue injury. NETs have been found in severe COVID-19 patients, but their role in disease development is still unknown. The aim of this study is to assess the capacity of NETs to drive epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of lung epithelial cells and to analyze the involvement of NETs in COVID-19. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of severe COVID-19 patients showed high concentration of NETs that correlates with neutrophils count; moreover, the analysis of lung tissues of COVID-19 deceased patients showed a subset of alveolar reactive pneumocytes with a co-expression of epithelial marker and a mesenchymal marker, confirming the induction of EMT mechanism after severe SARS-CoV2 infection. By airway in vitro models, cultivating A549 or 16HBE at air-liquid interface, adding alveolar macrophages (AM), neutrophils and SARS-CoV2, we demonstrated that to trigger a complete EMT expression pattern are necessary the induction of NETosis by SARS-CoV2 and the secretion of AM factors (TGF-β, IL8 and IL1β). All our results highlight the possible mechanism that can induce lung fibrosis after SARS-CoV2 infection., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Pandolfi, Bozzini, Frangipane, Percivalle, De Luigi, Violatto, Lopez, Gabanti, Carsana, D’Amato, Morosini, De Amici, Nebuloni, Fossali, Colombo, Saracino, Codullo, Gnecchi, Bigini, Baldanti, Lilleri and Meloni.)

Both adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) and thyroid metastasis are quite peculiar clinical presentations. ACC is a malignant salivary gland-type tumour mostly found in the head and neck district, but that can arise from different organs. Due to its rarity, it can pose problems in the diagnostic and therapeutic management. A 72-year-old woman presented for a persistent non-productive cough. A computed tomography showed a lung mass. She underwent lung surgery, and the lesion was an ACC primitive of the lung. She developed hoarseness and ultrasound and cytology confirmed metastatic involvement of left thyroid lobe from ACC. A total thyroidectomy was performed, followed by radiotherapy. The present case highlights the need to be aware of possible metastatic thyroid localization of ACC originating in lower airways. This is a very rare event, and clinical and cytological findings must be carefully examined. It represents an opportunity to consider the current knowledge about ACC metastasis to thyroid., (Published by Oxford University Press and JSCR Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved. © The Author(s) 2021.)

Background: COVID-19 is characterised by respiratory symptoms, which deteriorate into respiratory failure in a substantial proportion of cases, requiring intensive care in up to a third of patients admitted to hospital. Analysis of the pathological features in the lung tissues of patients who have died with COVID-19 could help us to understand the disease pathogenesis and clinical outcomes., Methods: We systematically analysed lung tissue samples from 38 patients who died from COVID-19 in two hospitals in northern Italy between Feb 29 and March 24, 2020. The most representative areas identified at macroscopic examination were selected, and tissue blocks (median seven, range five to nine) were taken from each lung and fixed in 10% buffered formalin for at least 48 h. Tissues were assessed with use of haematoxylin and eosin staining, immunohistochemical staining for inflammatory infiltrate and cellular components (including staining with antibodies against CD68, CD3, CD45, CD61, TTF1, p40, and Ki-67), and electron microscopy to identify virion localisation., Findings: All cases showed features of the exudative and proliferative phases of diffuse alveolar damage, which included capillary congestion (in all cases), necrosis of pneumocytes (in all cases), hyaline membranes (in 33 cases), interstitial and intra-alveolar oedema (in 37 cases), type 2 pneumocyte hyperplasia (in all cases), squamous metaplasia with atypia (in 21 cases), and platelet-fibrin thrombi (in 33 cases). The inflammatory infiltrate, observed in all cases, was largely composed of macrophages in the alveolar lumina (in 24 cases) and lymphocytes in the interstitium (in 31 cases). Electron microscopy revealed that viral particles were predominantly located in the pneumocytes., Interpretation: The predominant pattern of lung lesions in patients with COVID-19 patients is diffuse alveolar damage, as described in patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronaviruses. Hyaline membrane formation and pneumocyte atypical hyperplasia are frequent. Importantly, the presence of platelet-fibrin thrombi in small arterial vessels is consistent with coagulopathy, which appears to be common in patients with COVID-19 and should be one of the main targets of therapy., Funding: None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

SARS2-CoV-2 breakout in Italy caused a huge number of severely ill patients with a serious increase in mortality. Although lungs seem to be the main target of the infection, very few information are available about liver involvement, possibly evocating a systemic disease. Post-mortem wedge liver biopsies from 48 patients died from severe pulmonary COVID-19 disease with respiratory failure were collected from two main hospitals in northern Italy. No patient had clinical symptoms of liver disease or signs of liver failure before and during hospitalization; for each of them liver function tests were available. All liver samples showed minimal inflammation features. Histological pictures compatible with vascular alterations were observed, characterized by increase in number of portal vein branches associated with lumen massive dilatation, partial or complete luminal thrombosis of portal and sinusoidal vessels, fibrosis of portal tract, focally markedly enlarged and fibrotic. SARS-CoV-2 was found in 15 of 22 samples tested by in situ hybridization method. Our preliminary results confirm the clinical impression that liver failure is not a main concern and this organ is not the target of significant inflammatory damage. Histopathological findings are highly suggestive for marked derangement of intrahepatic blood vessel network secondary to systemic changes induced by virus that could target not only lung parenchyma but also cardiovascular system, coagulation cascade and endothelial layer of blood vessels. It still remains unclear if the mentioned changes are directly related to virus infection or if SARS-CoV-2 triggers a series of reactions leading to striking vascular alterations., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objective: To determine the prevalence and prognostic significance of lymph node micrometastases and isolated tumor cells (ITC) in patients submitted for radical resection for pathological stage I non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)., Methods: From January 1998 through December 2005, 87 consecutive pT1-2, pN0 NSCLC patients were enrolled. Surgical specimens were submitted to pathological routine examinations to define histotype, grade, stage, vascular invasion, necrosis and tumor proliferative index. A total of 694 regional lymph nodes were examined by means of serial sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin and labelled by immunohistochemistry (antibody AE1/AE3, DAKO). Relationships between these parameters and patients' prognosis were investigated., Results: By histological examination, there were 36 squamous-cell carcinoma, 38 adenocarcinoma and 13 large-cell carcinoma. Micrometastases and ITC were detected in 19 lymph nodes (2.7%) of 14 patients (16%). Significant correlation was observed between micrometastases or ITC and adenocarcinoma (p=0.03) and the absence of necrosis (p=0.05). No relationship was demonstrated between micrometastases or ITC and T-status, vascular invasion or proliferative index (p>0.05). Median follow-up was 3.2 (range 0.25-8.6) years. Two- and 5-year disease-free survival was similar for patients with and without micrometastases or ITC (79% and 64% vs 81% and 64%, respectively). Recurrence occurred in three patients with (two local, 66%) and in 21 patients without micrometastases or ITC (three local, 14%) (p=0.186). By multivariate analysis only T-status was demonstrated to be a significant prognostic factor., Discussion: Micrometastases or ITC to regional lymph nodes are demonstrated to be not a rare aspect of pathological stage I resected lung cancer. In our series, the presence of lymph nodes micrometastases does not affect long-term disease-free survival.

In front of the suspicious diagnosis of an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), the pathologist must have adequate and complete clinical, anamnestic, instrumental informations and, if possible, the previous histopathologic examinations. This is necessary because: the diagnosis of IBD is made with exclusion criteria, different pathologic entities may have similar macroscopic and microscopic findings and the characteristic lesions are often present in little number. The authors consider in this paper the problem of the differential diagnosis of IBD.

Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of HIV-related central nervous system (CNS) lesions (HIV-encephalitis and/or HIV-leukoencephalopathy: HIV-E/L) with and without concomitant opportunistic diseases in a large autopsy series, and to correlate it with the changes in antiretroviral treatment that have occurred since the beginning of the epidemic., Methods: We reviewed 1597 consecutive autopsies of HIV-positive patients performed between 1984 and 2000, and divided into four time periods on the basis of the therapeutic regimens available: 1984-1987, no therapy; 1988-1994, monotherapy (zidovudine); 1995-1996, dual combination therapy with nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI); and 1997-2000, triple combination therapy including two NRTI and at least one protease inhibitor or non-NRTI. The data concerning the treatment actually received were collected only for the patients who died during the last period. The chi -test was used to assess the significance of the differences in prevalence., Results: The CNS of 1210 patients (76%) was affected by opportunistic diseases, HIV-related lesions or both. The prevalence of HIV-related lesions in the four periods was respectively 54%, 32%, 18% and 15%; this reduction was statistically significant (P < 0.000001). During the last period, however, differences in HIV-E/L between treated and untreated patients were not statistically significant, although there were fewer than expected cases among the treated patients (six instead of eight) and more than expected among the untreated patients (10 instead of eight)., Conclusions: These neuropathological data from a large autopsy series confirm clinical observations concerning the efficacy of antiretroviral treatment in reducing the frequency of HIV-related CNS lesions in AIDS patients.

Fat distribution disorders are among the most frequent side effects of antiretroviral treatment. The pathophysiologic mechanism(s) for these events remains unclear, and a casual link to a specific drug or class of drugs is uncertain. The physical changes associated with the lipodystrophy syndrome can be divided into three major types: lipoatrophy or fat wasting; lipohypertrophy or fat accumulation; and mixed forms with atrophy and hypertrophy coexisting in different body regions. Fat accumulation can occur in one or more of several areas including dorsal-cervical and abdominal regions and breasts. Withdrawal of antiretroviral therapy does not seem to influence the stabilized lesions significantly, and no one of the therapeutic strategies adopted so far was capable to achieve substantial improvements. Here we describe the successful and lasting treatment of a massive and movement/posture-hampering breast hypertrophy with reductive mastoplasty.

Background: We describe herein a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and renal failure due to biopsy-proven BK virus (BKV) infection. Three months after the diagnosis of the renal viral infection, his condition remained unchanged. Although BKV has previously been shown to be associated with ureteral stenosis and renal damage in renal transplant patients, to our knowledge, the literature contains only 3 cases describing the presence of BKV lesions in the kidneys of immunosuppressed patients who had not undergone transplantation., Methods: The presence of BKV infection was demonstrated by means of histology, immunohistochemistry with polyclonal anti-SV40 antibody, immunoelectron microscopy, polymerase chain reaction, and enzymatic cleavage with BamHI., Results: Histologic examination revealed interstitial inflammatory infiltrates and tubules with enlarged and eosinophilic nuclei., Conclusions: The high frequency of latent BKV infection and its reactivation during immunosuppression suggest that the possibility of its involvement in renal damage should be considered in immunocompromised patients.