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The excessive number of auditory and false alarms (FAs) in medical settings (e.g. ICUs) negatively impact alarm response and performance on ongoing tasks. We examined the impact of two FA rates (low-40% and high-80% in a counterbalanced order repeated measures design) on 36 participants’ alarm responses with a concurrent working-memory (N-back) task. Participants made significantly more responses to FAs in the high FA condition relative to the low FA condition. An FA rate and order interaction revealed that participants who started in the low FA condition responded to fewer FAs in both the high and low FA conditions. Participants who started in the high FA condition responded to more than twice the number of FAs in the high FA condition compared to the low FA condition. Similarly, response time to correct detections (Hits) in the alarm and N-back tasks also revealed interaction effects between order and FA conditions. Participants who received the low FA condition first responded faster to true alarms in the high FA condition compared to those who received the high FA condition first. No significant main effects or interactions were observed for the number of Hits on the alarm task, response times to FAs in either task, nor for subjective ratings of mental workload or stress. Significant main and interaction effects observed on the N-back task were likely attributable to practice effects. These results underscore the need to reduce the number of FAs in medical settings and have implications for designing training paradigms to improve provider performance.

Mind wandering is a poorly understood phenomenon that can undermine driving safety. Driving performance measures have been found to be associated with mind wandering (e.g., steering wheel movements, standard deviation of lateral position, and speed variation). However, no one measure can fully describe the driver behavior associated with mind wandering. Therefore, in this paper we explore the effect of mind wandering on nine steering measures with data collected from a study that included nine drivers over two sessions of driving over five days. Participants were periodically probed to report their attentional state–whether they were mind wandering or focusing on the task. We used two dimensionality-reduction techniques—Principal component analysis (PCA) and t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE)—to visualize the dimensions underlying the nine measures. Comparing PCA to t-SNE highlights the benefits of t-SNE in revealing the fine structure that differentiates driving behavior. These visualizations show that a) driver engagement increased during roadway curve segments, and b) mind wandering manifests itself through several types of steering behavior.

Objective The aim of this study was to validate the importance of key acoustic criteria for use as in-vehicle forward collision warning (FCW) systems. Background Despite recent advances in vehicle safety, automobile crashes remain one of the leading causes of death. As automation allows for more control of noncritical functions by the vehicle, the potential for disengagement and distraction from the driving task also increases. It is, therefore, as important as ever that in-vehicle safety-critical interfaces are intuitive and unambiguous, promoting effective collision avoidance responses upon first exposure even under divided-attention conditions. Method The current study used a driving simulator to assess the effectiveness of two warnings, one that met all essential acoustic parameters, one that met only some essential parameters, and a no-warning control in the context of a lead vehicle–following task in conjunction with a cognitive distractor task and collision event. Results Participants receiving an FCW comprising five essential acoustic components had improved collision avoidance responses relative to a no-warning condition and an FCW missing essential elements on their first exposure. Responses to a consistently good warning (GMU Prime) improved with subsequent exposures, whereas continued exposure to the less optimal FCW (GMU Sub-Prime) resulted in poorer performance even relative to receiving no warning at all. Conclusions This study provides support for previous warning design studies and for the validity of five key acoustic parameters essential for the design of effective in-vehicle FCWs. Application Results from this study have implications for the design of auditory FCWs and in-vehicle display design.

In order to utilize the full range of benefits of autonomous systems, an understanding of how operators trust an automated system is vital. The level of risk in an environment is an important factor that many have suggested affects trust in automated and autonomous systems, but it has not been studied extensively. This study aims to explore the effect differing levels of risk can have on trust in an autonomous system with individuals that vary in their own risk profile. Using a UAV management task, participants worked with an autonomous teammate to protect an area from incoming enemies. Risk was assessed by how much money a participant stood to lose by not protecting the safe zone. Results partially support the hypothesis that trust decreases with increased risk, but results vary regarding behavioral trust and subjective trust. Overall, this experiment provides evidence that risk is an important situational factor that affects trust in automation.

When we interact with others, we make inferences about their internal states (i.e., intentions, emotions) and use this information to understand and predict their behavior. Reasoning about the internal states of others is referred to as mentalizing, and presupposes that our social partners are believed to have a mind. Seeing mind in others increases trust, prosocial behaviors and feelings of social connection, and leads to improved joint performance. However, while human agents trigger mind perception by default, artificial agents are not automatically treated as intentional entities but need to be designed to do so. The panel addresses this issue by discussing how mind attribution to robots and other automated agents can be elicited by design, what the effects of mind perception are on attitudes and performance in human-robot and human-machine interaction and what behavioral and neuroscientific paradigms can be used to investigate these questions. Application areas covered include social robotics, automation, driver-vehicle interfaces, and others.

The objectives of this research were to (1) explore whether goal-activation models of procedurally based interrupted task performance can be applied to content production, and if not, (2) develop a new theoretical account, and (3) provide support for that theory. Experiment 1 found that interruptions during planning resulted in less developed plans, and that available theoretical models could not account for performance. Experiment 2 leveraged Verbal Protocol Analysis to explore the cognitive mechanisms underlying interrupted task performance on a content production task. We found support for a combination of processes: (1) cues and environmental context, and (2) task activation levels. These results suggested a spreading activation account of interrupted task performance. Experiment 3 provided further support for spreading activation by comparing short and long interruptions. These results have broad implications for moving our understanding of interrupted task performance forward by expanding ou...

Objective: To provide an evaluative overview of the life and contributions of Raja Parasuraman. Background: From his earliest contributions in clarifying and explaining the problematic area of vigilance to his most recent interdisciplinary advances in understanding how genotype relates to behavior in complex technical environments, Raja Parasuraman was a giant of human factors and ergonomics. Our present exposition articulates and recounts his many contributions to our science and to science in general beyond the confines of our own discipline. Method: We use the history of scientific contributions, biographical analysis, and reported personal experience to accomplish our overall assessment of the man and his work. Results: We conclude that Parasuraman’s contributions were unique, substantive, and seminal, and will continue to influence our science for many years to come. Application: This work will serve as a record for those to come who look to make significant contributions to the goals, aims, and aspirations that we set ourselves in human factors and ergonomics in seeking to improve the human condition.

Driver distraction is thought to play a causal role in automobile crashes. Younger and older drivers have the highest crash risk per mile driven. To get a better understanding of the risk associated with conducting secondary tasks while driving the Naturalistic Driving Study (NDS) dataset, part of the Second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP2) was used to run a log-linear model comparing age and secondary task involvement and their relation to Event Severity (Balanced Baseline vs Crash), as well as Maneuver Judgement (Safe vs Unsafe). A significant relationship was found between event severity and maneuver judgement. Additionally, age group and secondary task engagement had a significant effect on event severity, but no significant interaction between age and secondary task was found. Age had a significant effect on maneuver judgement, but secondary task did not. Therefore, maneuver judgement may not be a good substitute for event severity as an outcome variable for predicting crashes.

As semiautonomous driving systems are becoming prevalent in late model vehicles, it is important to understand how such systems affect driver attention. This study investigated whether measures from low-cost devices monitoring peripheral physiological state were comparable to standard EEG in predicting lapses in attention to system failures. Twenty-five participants were equipped with a low-fidelity eye-tracker and heart rate monitor and with a high-fidelity NuAmps 32-channel quick-gel EEG system and asked to detect the presence of potential system failure while engaged in a fully autonomous lane changing driving task. To encourage participant attention to the road and to assess engagement in the lane changing task, participants were required to: (a) answer questions about that task; and (b) keep a running count of the type and number of billboards presented throughout the driving task. Linear mixed effects analyses were conducted to model the latency of responses reaction time (RT) to automation signals using the physiological metrics and time period. Alpha-band activity at the midline parietal region in conjunction with heart rate variability (HRV) was important in modeling RT over time. Results suggest that current low-fidelity technologies are not sensitive enough by themselves to reliably model RT to critical signals. However, that HRV interacted with EEG to significantly model RT points to the importance of further developing heart rate metrics for use in environments where it is not practical to use EEG.

Many everyday tasks, such as driving and reading technical reports, require sustained attention. These tasks may deplete attentional resources and/or lead to mind wandering, boredom and fatigue – cognitive states that result in impaired performance. Numerous competing theories exist to explain these performance decrements. In this panel, we will examine perspectives from both the fatigue and vigilance literatures, identifying points of common ground and differences in an attempt to further understand the underpinnings of performance decrements in tasks that require sustained attention. Experts in the interrelated yet frequently viewed as disparate areas of fatigue and vigilance are brought together to forge new theoretical ground.

Objective: The goal for this study was to develop an English translation of the Attention-Related Driving Errors Scale (ARDES-US) and to determine its potential relationship with driver history and other demographic variables. Background: Individual differences in performance on vigilance and cognitive tasks are well documented, but less is known about susceptibility to attention-related errors while driving. The ARDES has been developed and administered in both Spanish and Chinese but to our knowledge has never been administered or examined in an English-speaking population. Method: Two hundred ninety-six English-speaking individuals completed a series of self-report measures, including the ARDES-US, Attention-Related Cognitive Errors Scale, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, and Cognitive Failures Questionnaire. Results: A confirmatory factor analysis using maximum-likelihood estimates with robust standard errors revealed results largely consistent with previous versions of the ARDES, namely, the ARDES-Spain and ARDES-Argentina. Additionally, a number of new results emerged. Specifically, women, drivers who received traffic tickets within the previous 2 years, and those with a lower level of education all had a greater propensity toward self-reported driver inattention as measured by the ARDES-US. Further analyses revealed that these findings were independent of age, years of driving experience, and driving frequency. Conclusion: These results suggest that the ARDES-US is a valid and reliable measure of driver inattention with an English-speaking American sample. Application: Potential applications of the ARDES-US include identifying individuals who are at greater risk of attention-related errors while driving and suggesting individually tailored training and safety countermeasures.

Objective We investigated performance, workload, and stress in groups of paired observers who performed a vigilance task in a coactive (independent) manner. Background Previous studies have demonstrated that groups of coactive observers detect more signals in a vigilance task than observers working alone. Therefore, the use of such groups might be effective in enhancing signal detection in operational situations. However, concern over appearing less competent than one’s cohort might induce elevated levels of workload and stress in coactive group members and thereby undermine group performance benefits. Accordingly, we performed the initial experiment comparing workload and stress in observers who performed a vigilance task coactively with those of observers who performed the vigilance task alone. Method Observers monitored a video display for collision flight paths in a simulated unmanned aerial vehicle control task. Self-reports of workload and stress were secured via the NASA-Task Load Index and the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire, respectively. Results Groups of coactive observers detected significantly more signals than did single observers. Coacting observers did not differ significantly from those operating by themselves in terms of workload but did in regard to stress; posttask distress was significantly lower for coacting than for single observers. Conclusion Performing a visual vigilance task in a coactive manner with another observer does not elevate workload above that of observers working alone and serves to attenuate the stress associated with vigilance task performance. Application The use of coacting observers could be an effective vehicle for enhancing performance efficiency in operational vigilance.

Simulation research is a vital component of neuroergonomics research. Simulations allow examination of physiological metrics and performance in complex systems that might be either too costly or dangerous to investigate in settings that are more naturalistic. Simulations also allow a higher degree of experimental control than naturalistic settings. As will be discussed in this chapter, key aspects to keep in mind when designing experimental studies include the need for baselines, control conditions, and adaptation time. It is also important to ensure that the simulation has an appropriate level of validity to be able to generalize from the laboratory to settings that are more naturalistic.

In information dense, visually complex environments (e.g., automobiles, airplanes, and operating rooms) auditory alarms can direct attention to critical events. Effective alarms are designed to convey a hazard level appropriate for the situation they represent. Acoustic intensity plays an essential role in perceived urgency, with louder sounds generally being perceived as representing something more urgent. However, intensity may be dictated by factors outside the alarm designer’s control (e.g., background noise, manufacturer’s sound system specifications). Therefore it is essential to examine other acoustic parameters that can be used to convey scalable levels of perceived urgency. Previous work suggests that looming sounds, or sounds perceived to be coming towards a listener, may result in faster response times than other types of sounds. Further, people may respond faster to looming sounds if the rate of change (ROC) in the increase in intensity is more rapid, potentially making them a strong candidate for scalability. Sounds increasing in intensity quickly may be perceived as more urgent than other sounds. However, it is critical that ROC is not confounded by overall intensity, since the intensity-urgency relationship is well documented. The present study measured perceived urgency ratings of auditory looming stimuli with different intensity ROCs that were equated for overall intensity. Results revealed no differences in urgency ratings across the three ROCs. Current results indicate that overall intensity is more critical than ROC to achieving scalability in auditory alarms.

Distracted driving has been identified as a major concern in highway safety. Research to-date, however, has largely focused on distraction related to external events or intentional engagement in non-driving activities. Internal distraction (“mind wandering”) is now being recognized as a significant source of driver distraction that requires rigorous study. There are substantial challenges in detecting, measuring, and addressing mind wandering while driving. Panelists with expertise in driver distraction in general, and mind wandering in particular, will discuss both scientific and pragmatic issues in addressing this problem. Each panelist will present a brief perspective on the problem from the point of view of their experience and expertise. This will be followed by an open discussion period.