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The establishment of validated methodologies for the determination of food shelf-life is currently demanded by both food industries and Health Authorities at national and international scale. It is well known that most foods are perishable, since they are subjected to modifications in their structure, composition and properties during storage before consumption. These changes are of physico-chemical origin attributed to food composition together with the action of intrinsic and extrinsic environmental factors, and also microbiological, where spoilage flora play an important role. These modifications are “translated into“ sensorial deterioration at a specific time point. In this respect, food-borne bacteria, despite representing a threat for consumers´ health, do not affect sensorial changes

En la presente Tesis Doctoral se analiza el riesgo alimentario de listeriosis a través del consumo de ensaladas de IV gama. Listeria monocytogenes en un microorganismo patógeno prevalente en una amplia gama de alimentos, entre ellos, los vegetales, tanto crudos como tratados en forma de ensalada de IV gama o listas para consumo. En primer lugar, desde un enfoque tradicional de la seguridad alimentaria, se investigó la aplicación de criterios microbiológicos según el Reglamento (CE) Nº 2073/2005 en ensaladas de endivias de IV gama, empleando modelos predictivos. Con ello, se demostró que un modelo primario ajustado a datos de crecimiento del patógeno en el alimento permite la no superación de 100 ufc/g del patógeno a lo largo de la vida comercial en un 21% de las condiciones consideradas, por lo que, pese a que el producto presente cierta prevalencia de contaminación, se puede comercializar siempre y cuando no supere este límite de 100 ufc/g. Desde un enfoque novedoso de la seguridad alimentaria, el de Análisis de Riesgos según el Reglamento (CE) Nº 178/2002, se abordó el estudio de L.monocytogenes en una ensalada de lechuga de IV gama típica; además, se recabó información acerca del consumo de ensaladas de IV gama y de la temperatura de los frigoríficos domésticos, para finalizar con una Evaluación y Gestión del Riesgo de listeriosis a través del consumo de estas ensaladas, dentro del contexto del Análisis de Riesgo. El estudio del crecimiento de L.monocytogenes a 5 y 13ºC en ensalada de lechuga de IV gama, y con una composición inicial de gases de 4,65%-6,2% CO2, 2,1-4,3% O2 y balance de N2, presentó una tasa de crecimiento menor y una mayor densidad de población que las halladas por otros autores en ensaladas sin inyección inicial de gases. La mayor densidad máxima pudo deberse al efecto "Jameson". La fase de adaptación fue mayor que la encontrada por otro autores a 5ºC.

Veterinarians are experts in animal health and welfare and public health, playing an essential role in controlling and defending the safety and quality of food of animal origin. Official veterinarians (OVs) are a vital part of food safety assurance as they perform the official controls for the national authorities. The way official controls will be carried out in Europe in the future is currently under revision. The ongoing implementation of modernised meat safety assurance systems, from traditional inspection to risk-based meat safety assurance, requires OVs to adapt their control processes. They need to act as risk managers who consider harmonised epidemiological indicators and food chain information. However, to date, the demography, training opportunities and training needs of OVs remain to be assessed and likely vary widely across Europe. An online anonymous questionnaire was developed, tested in a pilot study and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Porto, Portugal. The objective of this survey tool, encompassing eight groups of questions, was to characterise OVs in terms of demography and employment, and to identify continuous education and training needs. To reach as many OVs working in Europe as possible, the questionnaire was translated into 17 different languages and was available to recipients from 1st December 2021 to 31st March 2022. This survey tool was disseminated through RIBMINS national contact points, the Federation of Veterinarians of Europe, the European College of Veterinary Public Health as well as professional and personal networks in the countries participating in the RIBMINS project. Over 1, 700 OVs from 30 countries have completed the questionnaire. The data obtained will enable the characterisation of this professional group and help to identify training needs and develop effective future training tools.

Embargada hasta 02/06/2024 Actualmente, la producción agrícola y la industria agroalimentaria generan una cantidad de residuos orgánicos muy elevada, que suponen un alto coste económico y de recursos. Por tanto, la gestión y valorización de dichos residuos constituye una cuestión crucial y una necesidad para el sector agroalimentario, que avanza hacia un modelo de producción respetuoso con el medio ambiente basado en una economía circular. En este sentido, la biomasa procedente del olivar representa la principal fuente de biomasa producida en Andalucía, cuya superficie de cultivo alcanza aproximadamente las 1.500.000 hectáreas, generando alrededor de 3.000.000 de toneladas de poda al año. Este residuo suele ser quemado en el campo, utilizado como aporte al suelo, como leña o destinada a alimentación animal. A veces, es vendido a un gestor autorizado, suponiendo un coste para el agricultor. La valorización de este residuo constituiría una solución o alternativa a esta pérdida de recursos naturales. En la última década, la demanda de alimentos seguros, naturales y funcionales por parte de los consumidores se ha visto incrementada. En este sentido, los productos basados en la hoja de olivo, ricos en compuestos fenólicos, podrían satisfacer las expectativas de los consumidores. Dichos compuestos, debido a su amplia actividad demostrada antioxidante y antimicrobiana frente a patógenos alimentarios, podrían preservar los alimentos durante su vida útil al ser incorporados como aditivos o ingredientes naturales. Del mismo modo, está reconocido científicamente que los compuestos fenólicos poseen no sólo una finalidad tecnológica en los alimentos, sino también farmacológica en el organismo, con multitud de efectos beneficios para la salud. Por otro lado, la tendencia actual de los consumidores en el sector de los envases alimentarios revela su alto compromiso con el medio ambiente, usando envases alimentarios más ecológicos y medioambientalmente favorables, y reduciendo el empleo de envases plásticos desechables o de un solo uso, que suponen un elevado coste medioambiental dada su baja biodegradabilidad. Por consiguiente, el objetivo de esta Tesis fue la valorización de la poda de olivo mediante la obtención de nanofibras de celulosa y compuestos bioactivos para su posterior aplicación en la industria agroalimentaria. A tal efecto, en primer lugar, se obtuvieron diferentes nanocelulosas a partir pasta celulósica procedente de podas de olivo, mediante un proceso de pasteado respetuoso con el medio ambiente, para posteriormente ser aplicadas como refuerzo en la formulación de films alimentarios (Capítulo 1 y 2). A continuación, se obtuvo un extracto de hoja de olivo y se evaluó su actividad antioxidante y antimicrobiana frente a patógenos alimentarios (Capítulo 3), seguido de una revisión de la actividad antibacteriana del extracto de hoja de olivo (Capítulo 4). Se desarrolló un prototipo de film alimentario funcional y biodegradable mediante la incorporación de extracto de hoja de olivo a una matriz polimérica, con el objetivo de mejorar la vida útil del alimento en contacto con dicho film (Capítulo 5). Por último, se investigaron los efectos de las condiciones gastrointestinales simuladas sobre los polifenoles presentes en la hoja de olivo con el objetivo de establecer su bioaccesibilidad, junto con el efecto prebiótico, durante la fermentación colónica in vitro. Los resultados demostraron que la nanocelulosa procedente de la poda de olivo, al ser aplicada como agente de refuerzo en matrices poliméricas, mejora las propiedades del film alimentario obtenido, mostrando aplicaciones prometedoras en la industria alimentaria. Del mismo modo se acreditó que la hoja de olivo posee una elevada actividad antioxidante y prebiótica, pudiendo ser utilizada como ingrediente/aditivo funcional para el desarrollo de productos alimenticios. Sin embargo, la incorporación del extracto de hoja de olivo en el film no dio lugar a los efectos antioxidantes o antimicrobianos esperados en el alimento bajo las condiciones experimentales ensayadas. Se precisa profundizar en este tipo de investigaciones para estudiar la migración de los compuestos bioactivos, principalmente polifenoles, desde el film/ envase alimentario, y para optimizar las condiciones que favorezcan sus efectos tecnológicos en el alimento. Currently, agriculture production and the agri-food industry generate a high amount of organic waste, which involves an economic and resources cost. Therefore, the management and use of waste becomes a priority for the sector, which steps forward an environmentally friendly production model and based on a circular economy. In this respect, olive biomass represents the main share of biomass production in Andalusia, where approximately 1,500,000 hectares are cultivated, generating around 3,000,000 tonnes of pruning per year. This residue is usually burnt in the field, although it is eventually used as soil amendment, firewood or animal feed. Sometimes it is sold to an authorised manager, entailing a cost for the farmer. The valorization of this residue would constitute a solution or alternative to the loss of natural resources. In the last decade, consumers´ demand for safe, natural and functional foods, has increased. In this sense, olive-leaf based products, rich in phenolic compounds, could meet modern society expectations. Phenolic compounds, due to their widely demonstrated antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens, could preserve foods during their shelf-life when incorporated as natural additives or ingredients. It is also scientifically recognised that phenolic compounds not only have a technological use in foods, but also a pharmacological effect in the human body, with multiple health benefits. On the other hand, current trends among consumers reveal their concern about the environment, using more ecological- and environmentally friendly food packaging, and reducing disposable or single-use plastic packaging, which has a dramatic environmental cost due to its low degradability in nature. Therefore, the aim of this Thesis was the valorisation of olive tree pruning by obtaining cellulose nanofibers and bioactive compounds for their application in the agri-food industry. For this purpose, firstly, different types of nanocellulose were obtained from the cellulose pulp of olive tree pruning, using an environmentally friendly pulping process, with the objective to be applied as a reinforcement material in the formulation of food films (Chapter 1 and 2). Next, an extract from olive leaf was obtained and its composition in phenolic compounds was evaluated, as well as its antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens (Chapter 3), followed by a review of the antibacterial activity of olive leaf extracts (Chapter 4). A prototype of functional and biodegradable food film was developed by incorporating olive leaf extract to a polymeric material, with the aim of improving the shelf-life of the food assayed in contact with the film (Chapter 5). Finally, the effects of simulated gastrointestinal conditions on olive leaf polyphenols were investigated to assess their bioaccessibility and prebiotic effect during in vitro human colon fermentation. The results showed that nanocellulose from olive tree pruning, when applied as a reinforcing agent in polymeric matrices, improves the mechanical and barrier properties of the film obtained, with promising applications in the food industry. It was also shown that olive leaf has a high antioxidant and prebiotic activity and can be used as a functional ingredient/additive for the development of food products. However, the integration of olive leaf extract into a polymeric film did not produce the expected antioxidant or antimicrobial effects in the food at the tested conditions. More research is needed to investigate the migration of bioactive compounds, mainly polyphenols, from the film or packaging to foods, and to optimize the conditions that enhance their technological effects in foods.

This paper describes the changes in the Croatian regulations and harmonisation with European Union (EU) legislation in the field of meat inspection, before and after 2013, when Croatia joined EU. Namely, in the last 30 years, the legislative framework of the meat inspection system in Croatia has changed several times. In 1997, the Veterinary Act (OG 70/1997) stipulated that veterinary health inspection in slaughterhouses is carried out by authorised veterinarians (AVs) employed in veterinary organisations to which state authorities have been delegated, while officinal veterinarians are employed by government and have a broader spectrum of duties. The AV performed the veterinary examinations to determine the safety of products of animal origin, and only they, and not the food business operators (FBOs), were responsible in the case of any non-compliance. The conditions that AVs had to fulfil were a diploma from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, a certificate of completion of the State Professional Examination (SPE) for Veterinary Inspector, and at least three years of professional experience after passing the SPE. The next Veterinary Act (OG 41/2007) brought changes in the meat inspection in the framework of official controls of food of animal origin by dividing regulations between this Act and the Food Act (OG 46/2007), and introduced the term “control bodies” for veterinary organisations with delegated state authorities. An AV then had at least two years of professional experience, a license (issued by the Croatian Veterinary Chamber after completing one year of professional practice) and the SPE certificate (issued by the Minister of Agriculture). The Food Act introduced a shift of responsibility in the case of non-compliances to FBOs, at all stages of production, processing and distribution. The Veterinary Act of 2013 (OG 82/2013) implemented Regulation (EC) No 882/2004 in the Croatian legislative framework, but did not bring any changes related to meat inspection. The State Inspectorate Act (OG 115/2018) introduced significant changes in the organisation, as all inspections involved in the food safety system were merged, with the exception of fisheries inspections. The Act on official controls and other official activities performed to ensure the application of food and feed law, rules on animal health and welfare, plant health and plant protection products (OG 52/2021) implemented the provisions of Regulation (EU) 2017/625. The State Inspectorate was introduced as the Competent Authority for different areas of official controls, and “delegated bodies” as the local competent authorities performing meat inspection. At the same time, amendments to the Veterinary Act (OG 52/2021) changed the requirements for AVs. The development of the legal framework over the years had less impact on the methodology of meat inspection, so riskbased meat inspection did not play a role in practice. However, since 2013, in cooperation with the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the Croatian Veterinary Chamber, continuous training programs have been organised for AVs, based on the EFSA scientific opinions (2011- 2013) on public health hazards posed by meat and its control in meat chain.