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Foods are a primary source of exogenous microorganisms and chemical motifs thereof that act as endotoxins because they trigger systemic inflammation in the body. One of the main accomplishments of food processing has been to prevent spoilage and protect human health by killing pathogenic microorganisms, but secondary consequences compel us to give more importance to the presence of the toxic chemical motifs that remain behind because they can cause systemic inflammation. To test if the type of inactivation affects the amounts of remnants, the concentrations of such toxic compounds were measured after microbial inactivation by classical thermal treatment and high-pressure processing of cow's milk. Three gram-negative bacteria were individually inoculated in reconstituted powder milk: Escherichia coli ATCC 11229, Pseudomonas fluorescens IB 2312 and Enterobacter aerogenes ATCC 13048, and the endotoxic potential estimated by determining the levels of the toxic chemical motifs known as lipopolysaccharides (LPS). The results indicated that the inactivation of these three microorganisms in cow's milk by classical heat treatment or by high pressure have the general tendency to increase the amounts of LPS, but not to a great extent. Additionally, the increases appeared to be a combination of both the type of microbe and the process.

Partially hydrogenated oils are known to cause metabolic stress and dyslipidemia. This paper explores a new dimension about the interaction between dietary trans-fats and the defense heat-shock protein (HSP) system, inflammation, and the gut microbiota of mice consuming a hyperlipidic diet containing partially hydrogenated vegetable oil free of animal fat. Five diet groups were installed: control diet, 2 hyperlipidic-partially hydrogenated-oil diets, each containing either casein or whey-protein hydrolysate (WPH) as protein source, and 2 consuming hyperlipidic-unhydrogenated-oil diets containing either WPH or casein as a protein source. The partially hydrogenated oil inhibited c-Jun NH2 -terminal kinase phosphorylation in the casein diets, but without altering κ-B kinase. Neither the lipid nor the protein had an influence on the proinflammatory toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway, but the combination of the high-lipid content and WPH impaired glucose tolerance without altering insulin or glucose transporter-4 translocation. It was remarkable to observe that, contrary to the case of a common high-fat diet, the lard-free hyperlipidic diets were hardly able to invert the Bacteroidetes:Firmicutes phylum ratio. Our results suggest that, in the absence of lard, the intake of trans-fatty acids is less harmful than expected because it does not trigger TLR4-inflammation or pose great threat to the normal gut microbiota. WPH had the effect of promoting the expression of HSP90, HSP60, and HSP25, but did not prevent dysbiosis, when the diet contained the unhydrogenated oil. The partially hydrogenated oil also seemed to antagonize the ability of WPH to induce the expression of protective HSPs.

Chronic non-communicable diseases such as obesity are preceded by increased macrophage infiltration in adipose tissue and greater secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. We evaluated the anti-inflammatory potential of Biotransformed extract, and two control extracts: In Natura and Autoclaved. The assays were performed using a cellular model with RAW264.7, 3T3-L1 cells, and RAW264.7 and 3T3-L1 co-culture. The innovation of the study was the use of Biotransformed extract, a unique phenolic extract of a bioprocessed citrus residue. LPS stimulated RAW264.7 cells treated with the Biotransformed extract exhibited lower secretion of TNF-α and NO and lower protein expression of NFκB. In RAW264.7 and 3T3-L1 co-culture, treatment with 1.0 mg/mL of the Biotransformed extract reduced secretion of TNF-α (30.7%) and IL-6 (43.4%). Still, the Biotransformed extract caused higher increase in adiponectin in relation to control extracts. When the co-culture received a LPS stimulus, the Autoclaved extract at 1.0 mg/mL reduced IL-6 and TNF-α concentrations, and raised adiponectin. However, it was noteworthy that the Biotransformed extract was also able to significantly reduce IL-6 concentration while the Natural extract was not. The Biotransformed citrus extract evaluated in this study showed anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages and in co-culture, indicating that bioprocess of citrus residue can contribute to new product development with anti-inflammatory potential.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Alibertia edulis (L.C. Rich.) A.C. Rich is a vegetable species used in Brazilian folk medicine due to it is putative hypoglycemiant effect but has never been pharmacologically investigated. It is popularly used for the control of diabetes, especially in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Following confirmation of the antioxidant activity of A. edulis by Aquino et al. (2017), the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of leaves of A. edulis aqueous extract (AEAE) on some biochemical parameters in mice fed a high-fat fed. Material and methods Leaves of A. edulis were air-dried in an oven at 40 °C for 10 days and ground into a fine powder by mechanical milling. The AEAE was prepared by decoction (1:10 w/v) at 97 °C for 15 min, and later filtered and lyophilized. Preliminary phytochemical analysis of the AEAE has been already indetified the presence of caffeic acid, quercetin 3-rhamnosyl-(1 → 6)-galactoside and iridois ioxide, ferulic acid and rutin in decocted leaves (Aquino et al., 2017). In one experiment, the acute oral toxicity AEAE was evaluated at 2,000 mg/kg of body weight. The animals were observed periodically for 14 days. In second experiment, the animals were divided into four groups (n = 5): Control, AEAE 200, AEAE 400 mg/kg and positive control (Metformin 100 mg/kg). In a third experiment, animals were divided into: Control RC (standard diet) (n = 24) and Control HFF (high-fat fed) (n = 24) groups for induction of glucose intolerance. After eight weeks, they were further subdivided into six groups (n = 8 each) RC or HFF with or without AEAE at doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg (2-wk) treatments to assess glucose tolerance. Plasma indicators of glucose tolerance and liver damage, skeletal muscle expression of antioxidant enzymes, and expression of the antioxidant proteins of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and phosphorylated IKK were determined. Results The HF-fed animals developed glucose intolerance which the AEAE failed to revert. Meanwhile, the AEAE treatment did lower the glucose levels in the normolipidic cohorts by virtue of its antioxidant property. It was also observed that the treatment with the AEAE reduced food intake negatively interfering weight accretion. Beyond that, the treatment with AEAE interfered in the SOD and catalase expression and inhibited phosphorylation of IKK thus suggesting that the observed hypoglycemiant power may be related to its known antioxidant potential. No sings of toxicity or hemolysis were detectaed at indicating that, at the concentrations evaluated, the extract was not toxic to normal cells. Conclusion The AEAE showed a hypoglycemiant effect in the normolipidic mice that received the control diet, but not in those that were made glucose-intolerant by consuming a high-fat fed. The extract also exhibited substantial protection against hemolysis and oxidative stress. Moreover, no signs of toxicity were evident at 2000 mg/kg of body weight.

Objetive: Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) improved symptoms and increased survival and quality of life in patients with coronary artery disease. However, it should be the main cause of a complex organic systemic inflammatory response that greatly contributes to several postoperative adverse effects. Methods: We aimed to evaluate heat-shock protein 70 (HSP 70) expression as a morbimortality predictor in patients with preserved ventricular function undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and to determine their association with the lactate as a marker of tissue hypoperfusion and the EuroSCORE risk score. This is a prospective, observational study including 46 patients and occurring between May and July 2016. Patients without ventricular dysfunction undergoing myocardial revascularization with extracorporeal circulation were included. They were divided into (1) complicated and (2) uncomplicated postoperative evolution groups. EuroSCORE, lactate levels, and HSP 70 expression and their correlations were determined. Results: Statistical analysis showed that the group with complicated evolution had higher EuroSCORE values than the other group. HSP 70 protein levels were significantly increased in the group with uncomplicated evolution and showed similar results. According to our results, HSP family proteins may be independent predictors of uncomplicated evolution in patients without ventricular dysfunction undergoing CABG with CPB. Conclusion: HSP 70 should be a good discriminator and protection marker for complications in cardiac surgery.

High-fat diets are used to induce adverse alterations in the intestinal microbiota, or dysbiosis, generalized inflammation and metabolic stress, which ultimately may lead to obesity. The influence of dietary whey proteins, whether intact or hydrolyzed, has been reported to improve glucose homeostasis and reduce stress. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to test if dietary milk-whey proteins, both in the intact form and hydrolyzed, could have an effect on the compositional changes of the cecal microbiota that can be induced in mice when receiving a high-fat diet in combination with the standard casein. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed a control casein diet (AIN 93-G); high-fat-casein (HFCAS); high-fat-whey protein concentrate (HFWPC) and high-fat whey-protein hydrolysate (HFWPH) for 9 weeks. The intestinal microbiota composition was analyzed by 16S-rRNA of the invariant (V1–V3) gene, potentially endotoxemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) release was determined colorimetrically, and liver fat infiltration assessed by light microscopy. The high-fat diet proved to induce dysbiosis in the animals by inverting the dominance of the phylum Firmicutes over Bacteroidetes, promoted the increase of LPS and resulted in liver fat infiltration. The whey proteins, whether intact or hydrolyzed, resisted the installation of dysbiosis, prevented the surge of circulating LPS and prevented fat infiltration in the liver. It is concluded that dietary whey proteins exert metabolic actions that tend to preserve the normal microbiota profile, while mitigating liver fat deposition in mice consuming a high-fat diet for nine weeks. Such beneficial effects were not seen when casein was the dietary protein. The hydrolyzed whey protein still differed from the normal whey protein by selectively protecting the Bacteroidetes phylum.

Whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) intake has shown to enhance heat shock proteins (HSPs). The presence of bioactive peptides has been suggested to affect the capacity of WPH to induce a HSP response. HSPs are responsible for maintaining normal cellular function and protecting cells from the damage induced by various stressors, including exercise. Bioactive peptides have been considered as food components that could be biofunctionality, however, studies focusing on potential bioactive peptides from WPH are still limited. The purpose of this study was to determine which WPH peptides could modulate the HSP response and other WPH abilities. Fifty-six male Wistar rats were divided into seven groups (n = 8): control, vehicle, Isoleucyl-leucine (lle-Leu), Leucyl-isoleucine (Leu-lle), Valyl-leucine (Val-Leu), Leucyl-valine (Leu-Val) and WPH. Each animal received 3 mmol/kg dose of peptide or WPH dissolved in water by oral gavage. Except for the control group, all groups were subjected to acute exercise for homeostasis alteration. Treadmill exercise has been established as a stimulus for an HSP response. The Leu-Val peptide increased the HSP70 and HSP25 muscle expression and restored the dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) expression. lle-Leu increased the muscle and serum HSP70 levels, but did not change the HSP25. Leu-Val increased and restored the expression of antioxidant system components. All peptides enhanced the lipase expression and reduced the cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels. These results indicated that the Leu-Val peptide is most likely involved in the WPH-induced stimulation of the HSP upregulation and antioxidant response, including the protective mechanism (DHFR) associated with the HSP70 effect. Additionally, the lle-Leu could also contribute to the WPH effect.

Notwithstanding the fact that dietary branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) have been considered to be a cause of insulin resistance (IR), evidence indicates that BCAA-rich whey proteins (WPs) do not lead to IR in animals consuming high-fat (HF) diets and may instead improve glucose homeostasis. To address the role of BCAA-rich WP as dietary protein in IR and inflammatory response, we fed C57BL/6J mice either high-fat (HF) or low-fat (LF) diets formulated with moderate protein levels (13% w/w) of either WP or hydrolyzed WP (WPH) and compared them with casein (CAS) as a reference. The muscle and plasma free amino acid profiles, inflammatory parameters and glycemic homeostasis were examined. While the LF/CAS diet promoted the rise in triglycerides and inflammatory parameters, the HF/CAS induced typical IR responses and impaired biochemical parameters. No differences in plasma BCAAs were detected, but the HF/WPH diet led to a twofold increase in gastrocnemius muscle free amino acids, including BCAAs. In general, ingestion of WPH was effective at averting or attenuating the damage caused by both the LF and HF diets. No high concentrations of BCAAs in the plasma or signs of IR were found in those mice fed an HF diet along with the hydrolyzed whey proteins. It is concluded that consumption of BCAA-rich whey proteins, especially WPH, does not result in the development of IR.

Due to the various beneficial effects attributed to propolis, which include anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial infection properties, the objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of propolis supplementation on the composition of the intestinal microbiota and its anti-inflammatory action. Forty male C57BL/6 mice were fed either a standard diet (control), a high-fat (HF) diet, or a high-fat diet supplemented with 0.2% crude propolis (HFP) for 2 or 5 weeks prior to sacrifice. Blood samples were collected for the determination of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and classical biochemical parameters. Expression of the TLR4 pathway in muscle, and DNA sequencing for the 16S rRNA of the gut microbiota were performed. The HF diet increased the proportion of the phylum Firmicutes and inflammatory biomarkers, while supplementation with propolis for five weeks rendered the microbiota profile nearly normal. Consistently with the above, the supplementation reduced levels of circulating LPS and down-regulated the TLR4 pathway and inflammatory cytokine expressions in muscle. Moreover, propolis improved such biochemical parameters as serum triacylglycerols and glucose levels. The data suggest that propolis supplementation reduces inflammatory response and endotoxemia by preventing dysbiosis in mice challenged with a high-fat diet.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of ingestion of probiotic Minas Frescal cheese (PMFC) on hypertension parameters in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Twenty-eight animals were divided into four groups fed with different experimental diets: control initial (CI), control final (CF), traditional Minas Frescal cheese (CMFC), and PMFC. The latter two groups were fed with 20g of cheese per day for 15days. All groups were assessed for blood pressure and health parameters. The results show that the group fed with PMFC exhibited significantly lower blood pressure when compared to the group fed with CMFC, CI, and CF. Regarding the other health parameters, an improvement in blood lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol) was observed for the group fed with PMFC as compared with CMFC. No significant differences were observed in renal function parameters. Our findings suggest that consumption of probiotic cheese can be potentially useful to improve the cardiovascular health parameters.

Intense physical activity results in a substantial volume of stress and hence a significant probability of immunosuppression in athletes. Consumption of a probiotic can attenuate immune suppression induced by exhausting exercise in rats. A potential probiotic fermented milk was manufactured from milk treated by dynamic high pressure (P.F. Milk DHP) containing Strep. Salivarius thermophilus ssp. TA 040 and Lactobacillus acidophilus LA14 was fed for 2 weeks to Wistar rats, which then were brought to exhaustion on the treadmill. Two hours after exhaustion, the rats were killed and material was collected for the determination of serum parameter of health and immune system. The immune suppression exercise-induced was observed by alteration in lymphocytes, monocytes, leukocytes and neutrophil counts in all exhausted groups, but it was attenuated by consumption of P.F. Milk DHP. Thus, P.F. Milk DHP was effective in enhancing the immune system and could improve the health status as in Wistar rats.

Omega-3 enriched chocolate milk (O3ECM) has a suitable combination of proteins, electrolytes and carbohydrates for post-workout recovery. Herein, the effects of an O3ECM on biochemical parameters and muscle damage in sedentary rats submitted to a session of intense and acute exhaustive exercise was evaluated. Forty-eight male Wistar rats were divided into the following test groups: (a) sedentary rats fed a chocolate milk; (b) sedentary rats fed an O3ECM; (c) exercised rats fed a chocolate milk; and (d) exercised rats fed an O3ECM. After 15 days, the analysis of muscle damage and health parameters was performed. The results showed that the O3ECM consumption decreased the muscle damage (creatine kinase −20% and lactate dehydrogenase −18.7%), as well as increased the activity of endogenous enzymes (catalase +41%, superoxide dismutase +26.7% and glutathione peroxidase +35.7%) and decreased the total cholesterol (−7.8%) and triacylglycerols (−16.2%). Overall, O3ECM can minimize the deleterious effects of exhaustive exercise.

The heat shock proteins are endogenous proteins with the ability to act as molecular chaperones. Methods that provide cell protection by way of some damage can positively influence the results of surgery. The present review summarizes current knowledge concerning the cardioprotective role of the heat shock proteins as occurs in heart damage, including relevant information about the stresses that regulate the expression of these proteins and their potential role as biomarkers of heart disease.

Partially hydrogenated oils are known to cause metabolic stress and dyslipidemia. This paper explores a new dimension about the interaction between dietary trans-fats and the defense heat-shock protein (HSP) system, inflammation, and the gut microbiota of mice consuming a hyperlipidic diet containing partially hydrogenated vegetable oil free of animal fat. Five diet groups were installed: control diet, 2 hyperlipidic-partially hydrogenated-oil diets, each containing either casein or whey-protein hydrolysate (WPH) as protein source, and 2 consuming hyperlipidic-unhydrogenated-oil diets containing either WPH or casein as a protein source. The partially hydrogenated oil inhibited c-Jun NH

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of leucine supplementation combined with exercise and whey protein in cardiac mTOR anabolic pathway. Ninety-six weanling male Wistar rats were divided into eight groups and fed diets containing either casein or WP plus increasing levels (0, 3, 4.5 and 6% of diet) of l -leucine for 30 days. A parallel set of eight groups was exercised for comparison. Serum aspartate amino transferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and branched chain amino acids were determined by standard methods, and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and p70S6K by the Western blot analysis. Chronic l -leucine supplementation was capable of increasing both mTOR and p70S6K phosphorylation in the heart in a dose-dependent fashion, independent of the type of dietary protein in both groups, sedentary and exercised, but the exercise potentialized the activation of the anabolic pathway. The content of protein in heart increase with l -leucine supplementation and the heart mass relativized by body mass did not change. In conclusion, the combination of l -leucine and milk proteins (casein or whey protein) has the potential to increase the mTOR pathway in the cardiac muscle without increasing the heart mass. The novelty of this study is to show the effectiveness of a blend of leucine and whey protein as a viable alternative to maximize the activation of the anabolic pathway of cardiac muscle and that the exercise can improve this process.

Whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) is capable of increasing muscle glycogen reserves and of concentrating the glucose transporter in the plasma membrane (PM). The objective of this study was to determine which WPH components could modulate translocation of the glucose transporter GLUT-4 to the PM of animal skeletal muscle. Forty-nine animals were divided into 7 groups (n=7) and received by oral gavage 30% glucose plus 0.55g/kg body mass of the following WPH components: (a) control; (b) WPH; (c) l-isoleucine; (d) l-leucine; (e) l-leucine plus l-isoleucine; (f) l-isoleucyl-l-leucine dipeptide; (g) l-leucyl-l-isoleucine dipeptide. After receiving these solutions, the animals were sacrificed and the GLUT-4 analysed by western blot. Additionally, glycogen, glycaemia, insulin and free amino acids were also determined by standard methods. Of the WPH components tested, the amino acid l-isoleucine and the peptide l-leucyl-l-isoleucine showed greater efficiency in translocating GLUT-4 to the PM and of increasing glucose capture by skeletal muscle.

Whey protein has been suggested to be potential protective agent against various forms of stress. The heat shock protein HSP70 confers greater cellular tolerance against stressors. The present study evaluated the effects of whey protein intake on HSP70 expression. Forty-eight male Wistar rats were divided into sedentary and exercised groups, and each group was fed as a protein source casein (CAS), whey protein (WP) or whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) for 3weeks. Exercise on a treadmill was used as the source of stress in the animals from the exercised group. The results showed a larger increase in HSP70 expression in the soleus, gastrocnemius and lung of the WPH-fed rats than WP or casein-fed rats. HSP70 expression in the sedentary rats was very low, independent of the diet or tissue. Protein carbonyls were lower in the group that consumed WPH. These data suggest that the consumption of WPH enhances HSP70 expression.

Background: Several physiologically beneficial effects of consuming a whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) have been attributed to the greater availability of bioactive peptides. Aims: The aim was to investigate the effect of four branched-chain amino acid- (BCAA-)containing dipeptides, present in WPH, on immune modulation, stimulation of HSP expression, muscle protein synthesis, glycogen content, satiety signals and the impact of these peptides on the plasma free amino acid profiles. Methods: The animals were divided in groups: control (rest, without gavage), vehicle (water), L-isoleucyl-L-leucine (lle-Leu), L-leucyl-L-isoleucine (Leu-lle), L-valyl-Lleucine (Val-Leu), L-leucyl-L-valine (Leu-Val) and WPH. All animals were submitted to acute exercise, except for control. Results: lle-Leu stimulated immune response, hepatic and muscle glycogen and HSP60 expression, whereas Leu-Val enhanced HSP90 expression. All dipeptides reduced glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, no changes were observed on leptin. All peptides inhibited NF-kB expression. The plasma amino acid time-course showed peptide-specific and isomer-specific metabolic features, including increases of the BCAAs. Conclusion: The data indicate that lle-Leu was effective to attenuate immune-suppression exercise-induced, promoted glycogen content and stimulated anti-stress effect (HSP). Furthermore, Leu-Val increased HSP90, p-4EBP1, p-mTOR and p-AMPK expression. The data suggest the involvement of these peptides in various beneficial functions of WPH consumption.

The viability and survival of Lactobacillus acidophilus La5 under in vitro simulated gastrointestinal in probiotic dairy dessert was assessed. In addition, the effects of regular consumption of the dessert (5g/day) on the lipid profile, immune system, and antioxidant/biochemical status of Wistar rats were also evaluated after 2weeks of treatment. Adequate counts of L. acidophilus La-5 were observed regards the viability and gastrointestinal conditions. The probiotic dairy dessert was efficient in reducing the LDL-cholesterol, triacylglycerol and increased the HDL-cholesterol in serum. Aspartate amino transferase, alanine aminotransferase, total protein, albumin, heat shock proteins, immune system responses, and blood-cells counts (monocyte, lymphocyte, neutrophil and leucocyte) were not affected (p>0.05) after 15days of treatment. Overall, the probiotic dairy dessert may be a viable alternative to enhance the blood lipid profile and could be used to improve the antioxidant defenses.

Milk whey protein (WP) is the most abundant source of amino acids and peptides made available to the newly born human. As our knowledge on nutrient–body interactions advances, we begin to realize that nature has designed this class of proteins to be used not only as a prompt source of nutrients for growth, but also as a strategic pack of cell signalers at the body's disposal for a number of physiologic needs at diverse points of metabolism. This chapter will examine and discuss published evidence on three metabolic instances in the noninfant in which the WPs could mitigate the hyperglycemic state by increasing (1) insulin-dependent and (2) insulin-independent glucose uptake, and (3) by affording an antistress effect likely to further alleviate hyperglycemia if consumed in a predigested form.

Interest in the heat shock proteins (HSPs), as a natural physiological toolkit of living organisms, has ranged from their chaperone function in nascent proteins to the remedial role following cell stress. As part of the defence system, HSPs guarantee cell tolerance against a variety of stressors, including exercise, oxidative stress, hyper and hypothermia, hyper and hypoxia and improper diets. For the past couple of decades, research on functional foods has revealed a number of substances likely to trigger cell protection through mechanisms that involve the induction of HSP expression. This review will summarize the occurrence of the most easily inducible HSPs and describe the effects of dietary proteins, peptides, amino acids, probiotics, high-fat diets and other food-derived substances reported to induce HSP response in animals and humans studies. Future research may clarify the mechanisms and explore the usefulness of this natural alternative of defense and the modulating mechanism of each substance.

For almost four decades, L-leucine has been recognised as a key amino acid for animal growth, beyond its value as a nutritionally indispensable amino acid. Reported functions of L-leucine, either in the free form or as part of a peptide, include tissue protection, an anti-stress property and the ability to translocate GLUT-4 thereby ameliorating hyperglycaemia. Studies with either rodents or humans indicate that although extra anabolic effects are produced by supplemental L-leucine or mixtures of whey protein plus L-leucine, no undisputed evidence exists that it produces muscle hypertrophy.

Aim To examine the influence of l -arginine supplementation in combination with physical training on mitochondrial biomarkers from gastrocnemius muscle and its relationship with physical performance. Main methods Male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control sedentary (SD), sedentary supplemented with l -arginine (SDLA), trained (TR) and trained supplemented with l -arginine (TRLA). Supplementation of l -arginine was administered by gavage (62.5 mg/ml/day/rat). Physical training consisted of 60 min/day, 5 days/week, 0% grade, speed of 1.2 km/h. The study lasted 8 weeks. Skeletal muscle mitochondrial enriched fraction as well as cytoplasmic fractions were obtained for Western blotting and biochemical analyses. Protein expressions of transcriptor coactivator (PGC-1α), transcriptor factors (mtTFA), ATP synthase subunit c, cytochrome oxidase (COXIV), constitutive nitric oxide synthases (eNOS and nNOS), Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD) and manganese-SOD (Mn-SOD) were evaluated. We also assessed in plasma: lipid profile, glycemia and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. The nitrite/nitrate ( NO x − ) levels were measured in both plasma and cytosol fraction of the gastrocnemius muscle. Key findings 8-week l -arginine supplementation associated with physical training was effective in promoting greater tolerance to exercise that was accompanied by up-regulation of the protein expressions of mtTFA, PGC-1α, ATP synthase subunit c, COXIV, Cu/Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD. The upstream pathway was associated with improvement of NO bioavailability, but not in NO production since no changes in nNOS or eNOS protein expressions were observed. Significance This combination would be an alternative approach for preventing cardiometabolic diseases given that in overt diseases a profound impairment in the physical performance of the patients is observed.

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of chia seed and chia oil on heat shock protein (HSP) and related parameters in diet-induced obese rats. Methods Animals were divided in six groups: control, high-fat and high-fructose diet (HFF), and HFF with chia seed or chia oil in short (6-wk) and long (12-wk) treatments. Plasma indicators of glucose tolerance and liver damage, skeletal muscle expression of antioxidant enzymes, and proteins controlling oxidative energy metabolism were determined. The limit of significance was set at P Results The HFF diet induced glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and altered parameters related to obesity complications. The consumption of chia seed or chia oil did not reduce body weight gain or abdominal fat accumulation. However, chia seed and chia oil in both treatments improved glucose and insulin tolerance. Chia oil in both treatments induced expression of HSP70 and HSP25 in skeletal muscle. Short treatment with chia seed increased expression of HSP70, but not HSP25. Chia oil in both treatments restored superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase expression. Extended treatment with chia seed and short treatment with chia oil restored peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression. Conclusion Chia oil restored the antioxidant system and induced the expression of a higher number of proteins than chia seed. The present study demonstrated new properties and molecular mechanisms associated with the beneficial effects of chia seed and chia oil consumption in diet-induced obese rats.

Whey protein (WP) and whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) have the recognized capacity to increase glycogen stores. The objective of this study was to verify if consuming WP and WPH could also increase the concentration of the glucose transporters GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 in the plasma membrane (PM) of the muscle cells of sedentary and exercised animals. Forty-eight Wistar rats were divided into 6 groups (n = 8 per group), were treated and fed with experimental diets for 9 days as follows: a) control casein (CAS); b) WP; c) WPH; d) CAS exercised; e) WP exercised; and f) WPH exercised. After the experimental period, the animals were sacrificed, muscle GLUT-1 and GLUT-4, p85, Akt and phosphorylated Akt were analyzed by western blotting, and the glycogen, blood amino acids, insulin levels and biochemical health indicators were analyzed using standard methods. Consumption of WPH significantly increased the concentrations of GLUT-4 in the PM and glycogen, whereas the GLUT-1 and insulin levels and the health indicators showed no alterations. The physical exercise associated with consumption of WPH had favorable effects on glucose transport into muscle. These results should encourage new studies dealing with the potential of both WP and WPH for the treatment or prevention of type II diabetes, a disease in which there is reduced translocation of GLUT-4 to the plasma membrane.

Whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) intake has shown to increase HSP70 expression. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether WPH intake would also influences HSP90, HSP60 and HSP25 expression, as well as associated parameters. Forty-eight male Wistar rats were divided into sedentary (unstressed) and exercised (stressed) groups, and were fed with three different sources of protein: whey protein (WP), whey protein hydrolysate (WPH) and casein (CAS) as a control, based on the AIN93G diet for 3 weeks. WPH intake increased HSP90 expression in both sedentary and exercised animals compared to WP or CAS, however no alteration was found from exercise or diet to HSP60 or HSP25. Co-chaperone Aha1 and p-HSF1 were also increased in the exercised animals fed with WPH in comparison with WP or CAS, consistent with enhanced HSP90 expression. VEGF and p-AKT were increased in the WPH exercised group. No alteration was found in BCKDH, PI3-Kinase (p85), GFAT, OGT or PGC for diet or exercise. The antioxidant system GPx, catalase and SOD showed different responses to diet and exercise. The data indicate that WPH intake enhanced factors related to cell survival, such as HSP90 and VEGF, but does not alter HSP60 or HSP25 in rat skeletal muscle.

The probiotics can be useful to improve the immune response in experimental challenges, like the exhausting exercise, that cause immunosuppression. We have evaluated a probiotic yogurt and a probiotic whey beverage using an exhausting physical-exercise protocol with rats. Wistar rats were given a daily 4-mL supplement of each type of conventional or probiotic yogurt and whey beverage, manufactured with lactic culture Streptococcus thermophilus TA040 and Lactobacillus bulgaricus LB340, and probiotic culture Lactobacillus acidophilus LA 14 and Bifidobacterium longum BL 05. The effects on the immune system were compared to those of pair-treated cohorts receiving for 14 days. Results demonstrated that the probiotic yogurt outperformed the probiotic whey beverage in blood-cell indicators (neutrophils and lymphocytes), cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) and various standard health parameters. In conclusion, in this study, the treadmill exercise assay successfully produced immunosuppression in the rat and the combination of the nutrients and probiotic bacteria of the yogurt reduces more effectively the adverse effects developed over the prolonged strenuous exercise than did a similar probiotic whey beverage.

The whey proteins are rich sources of leucine and affect mTOR-mediated skeletal muscle protein synthesis. The present authors wished to investigate the dose–response effect of chronic supplementation of the whey proteins (WP) with leucine on the anabolic pathway proteins mTOR and p70S6K in the diaphragm of sedentary and exercised Wistar rats. Ninety-six weanling male Wistar rats were divided into eight groups and fed for 30 day diets containing either casein or WP, with increasing levels (0, 3, 4.5 and 6% of the diet) of leucine. A parallel set of eight groups was exercised for comparison. Serum uric acid, creatinine, glucose, AST, ALT, CK, LDH and cholesterol, were determined by standard methods, and mTOR and p70S6K, using the Western blot analysis. Leucine supplementation increased both, mTOR and p70S6K in the diaphragm in a dose-dependent way, independent of the type of dietary protein. These changes produced no significant increase in either diaphragm or protein mass.