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This paper reviews principles from decision psychology relevant to understanding and increasing acceptance of urban recycled water, and supplements existing literature by suggesting an additional f...

Since the introduction of contagion theory to the psychological literature in the 1980s and 1990s, research and interest in the topic have proliferated, especially as related to consumer pe...

Despite pervasive discussion of “barebacking” in the HIV prevention literature, inconsistencies exist in how the term is defined. Moreover, little is known about whether gay and bisexual men concur with any of the definitions in the literature. In this study, gay and bisexual men (n = 398) were provided with four scenarios, describing various circumstances in which someone has unprotected anal intercourse. Participants were asked to indicate whether the man in each scenario was “barebacking.” Sixty-four percent did not discriminate in defining the term, indicating that barebacking includes any unprotected anal intercourse with any kind of sexual partner. Men were also asked whether they had ever tried barebacking, and if so, why. The most common reasons provided were (1) having sex with a steady partner, and (2) increased physical sensation. These findings suggest that men's definitions of “barebacking” vary widely and do not necessarily coincide with those of researchers and HIV prevention advoc...

A growing body of research links perceived discrimination to psychological distress, yet recent reviews of this literature suggest that the subjectivity inherent in reports of discrimination is an important methodological consideration. Specifically, personality characteristics may predispose individuals to psychological distress and also affect whether discrimination is perceived, thereby spuriously inflating associations between discrimination and mental health. The present study examined this possibility. Gay and bisexual men (N = 250) completed self–report measures of perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, hostility, and neuroticism. Perceived discrimination was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Hostility and neuroticism were both significant confounders of this relation, together accounting for 42% of the observed association between discrimination and depression. Discrimination remained a significant predictor of depressive symptoms even after controlling for hostility...

Psychological Sense of Community (PSOC) theoretically comprises four components (Membership, Influence, Fulfillment of Needs, and Shared Emotional Connection), but existing measures of the components are psychometrically lacking. The current study sought to develop valid and reliable measures of the four theoretical components by building on and conceptually tightening items from existing PSOC measures, including the Sense of Community Index. Twenty-six items were administered to 348 gay and bisexual men living in Arizona. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, a three-factor model with Influence, Shared Emotional Connection, and Fulfillment of Needs/Belonging achieved the best fit; it was impossible, empirically, to distinguish between the Fulfillment of Needs and Belonging factors. Measures for these three PSOC components and the combined PSOC measure evidenced high reliabilities. Validity testing results supported the three component measures and the combined measure. Implications of the results for PSOC theory and research are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In a qualitative investigation of young feminists' experience of body consciousness, 25 feminist women each participated in one of 6 focus groups examining the ways they experienced body image and negotiated cultural messages about women's appearance. Participants described their experience with objectification and its impact on their body image, sense of self, and relationships with other women. Although feminism provided an alternative way to understand cultural messages and reframe negative thoughts, this understanding did not necessarily affect aesthetic reactions. Participants experienced conflict between their feminist beliefs and their feelings about beauty ideals and their own appearance. This conflict is interpreted in terms of a mere exposure effect and existing gender/power relations. Suggestions of ways feminist psychologists can support young women's strategies for resisting negative cultural messages are provided.

Summary “Third wave” feminists, raised in the wake of an established feminist movement as well as a strong anti-feminist backlash, are beginning to define their own feminist agenda. “Third wave” feminists are exploring the contradictions in their lived experience as feminists, and examining the inter section of feminism with their other identities. Young feminists' self-expression has been characterized (by feminists and non-feminists) as “self-obsessed” and “divorced from matters of public purpose” (Bellafante, 1998, p. 57 & 60). In this essay, we provide an alternative view of “third wave” expression, seeing young feminists' honesty in their struggles with various identities as a resurgence of grass roots activism; a return to “the personal.” In this essay, we call for an intergenerational dialogue between second and third wave feminists, and encourage feminist therapists to support and validate young feminists.

Research on the sexual behavior of young adults has documented a casual/regular partner distinction in terms of condom use and perceived risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). How this population distinguishes between the 2 partner types has not been known, making it impossible to assess the rationality of this strategy. In the present study, college students’ conceptions of casual vs. regular partners were explored and used to create 3 sexual partner scenarios: casual, regular with insufficient risk information (regular emotionally safe), and regular with sufficient risk information (regular objectively safe). Participants rated the target partner in terms of emotional safety, AIDSISTD risk, and likelihood of condom use. Results showed participants to be blumng emotional with physical safety; i.e., employing an emotionally based strategy in rating perceived risk. As of June 1996, nearly 550,000 AIDS cases were diagnosed in the United States, and 1 in every 250 Americans is estimated to be infected with HIV (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1996). Currently, the primary means of battling AIDS still lies in prevention, through identifying and changing behaviors that increase the risk of HIV infection. Although homosexual transmission still accounts for the largest percentage of current AIDS cases, heterosexual transmission is accounting for an increasing percentage of the total number of new cases, particularly among women and adolescents (CDC, 1996; National Conference of State Legislatures, 1993). The trend for young adults is attracting particular concern because they are known to engage in sexual behaviors that can lead to increased exposure, including a high rate of both multiple partners and unprotected sex (Abrams, Abraham, Spears, & Marks, 1990; Baldwin & Baldwin, 1988; MMWR, 1992; Ehrhardt, 1992; Rosenthal, Hall, & Moore, 1992). In addition to HIV/AIDS, young adults are being exposed to other ‘Thanks to Sandy Braver for his helpful input during conceptualization and data analysis phases of this project. Thanks also to Rose Weitz, Craig Nagoshi, William Hanison, Barbara Henker, Leona Aiken, and anonymous reviewers for critical comments on earlier versions of this manuscript, and to Gail Wade and Janice Blair for their assistance in the implementation of this project. 2Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lisa Comer, Depamnent of Psychology, University of California at Los Angeles, 2 191 Franz Hall 156304, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1 563.

Although numerous risk factors for bulimia nervosa have been identified, no multivariate models of bulimia have been empirically investigated with longitudinal data. The current study provided a confirmatory test of the dual pathway model of bulimia nervosa using prospective data from a community sample of adolescents (N = 218). Latent variable modeling indicated that negative affect and dietary restraint predicted future bulimic symptomatology. Further, these two factors mediated the effects of initial perceived pressure for a thin body, body mass, ideal body internalization, and body dissatisfaction on subsequent bulimic pathology. These findings provide additional support for the dual pathway model of bulimia, suggest variables that might be targeted in prevention and treatment efforts, and point to several directions for future research.

Although sociocultural pressures are thought to contribute to bulimia nervosa, little research has examined the mechanisms by which these factors might actually produce eating pathology. The present study tested an integrative model of bulimia that centers around dietary restraint and affect regulation pathways. It also incorporates perceived sociocultural pressure, body-mass, ideal-body internalization, and body dissatisfaction. Using data from 257 female undergraduates, structural equation modeling revealed that the model accounted for 71% of the variance in bulimic symptomatology. The relation between perceived sociocultural pressure and bulimic symptoms was mediated by ideal-body internalization, body dissatisfaction, dietary restraint, and negative affect. The results support the dual pathway model of bulimia and suggest variables that might be targeted in prevention efforts.

Three surveys of American undergraduate students explore a central aspect of the concept of "physical self:" the vulnerability or sensitivity of different parts of the body surface, especially apertures, to intrusion and contamination. The basic measure used was rated displeasure at imagined contact of various body parts of the subject with plain neutral objects (e.g., a Q-tip or a poker chip) or with that same object after imagined contact with a potentially offensive site (e.g., a stranger′s mouth). All contaminated objects were described as sterilized by dry heat before contact with the subject. The principal findings from these studies are: (1) Contact with apertures is more unpleasant than contact with unbroken skin. (2) Displeasure at contact with apertures can be analyzed into two components: intrusion sensitivity and contamination sensitivity. (3) The anus is the aperture that is most intrusion sensitive, while the mouth and vagina are the most contamination sensitive points on the body. (4) In general, the more susceptible an aperture to contamination, the more potent it is as a contaminant for other persons. (5) Within the mouth, the sense of offensiveness of an intruding object increases with both physical contact (especially of the tongue) and the sense of "inclusion," that is, being within the mouth cavity even in the absence of contact. (6) Heterosexual males display strong negativity to any sort of contact with other males, while they seem to sexualize contact with unknown females. For heterosexual females and homosexual males, the pattern of sensitivity (by aperture) to cockroaches is like that to strange males or females. However, for heterosexual males, strange male contact is like cockroach contact, but strange female contact is not.

Previous research found that meal size can affect judgments of eaters' attractiveness and femininity. The present study investigates whether eating specific types of foods-namely, healthy, nonfattening foods versus unhealthy, fattening ones-gives rise to moral judgments about the eaters. Subjects were presented with one of four bogus profiles of a person, which differed only in gender and foods consumed. Subjects rated the target on morality; potential mechanisms of effects were also explored. Results confirmed the hypothesis that moral judgments of others differ depending on the foods they eat. This result was not simply due to a halo effect but was explained by two mediational mechanisms: the Puritan ethic and the "you are what you eat" principle. However, the effect did not show predicted moderation by subject or target gender or restrained-eating status. Foods also seemed to influence subjects' perceptions of fitness and weight information about the target. Moral Aspects of Diet

The media have been heavily implicated as sources of overconcern with body focus, attractiveness, and thinness, primarily for women. Attendant negative consequences are widely assumed. Yet there appears to be a recent media trend to concern with physical health and fitness, rather than just appearance. This trend has not been empirically assessed. Further, previous research has not adequately explored the possibility that there may be an assortment of physical ideals represented in the media, which may vary according to the different audiences being targeted. The current study assessed magazine article content, examining gender differences, time trends, and magazine audience type. Four types of article content were examined: health, fitness, beauty, and weight loss, in an attempt to capture the major aspects of body focus. The numbers of articles containing such content were tallied, over a 12-year period, in a sample of magazines oriented to three distinct audiences: traditional, high fashion, and modern. Huge gender differences were obtained, with female-targeted magazines not surprisingly outstripping male-targeted ones for all content categories assessed. There were also clear differences in content between magazine types. Time-trend analyses indicated a decrease in emphasis on weight loss in women's magazines over the period studied, and a statistical trend for an increase in weight loss focus in men's magazines. We conclude that apparent trends toward healthier habits are not just thinness goals revisited.

A preference-based measure of responses to warning labels was used to study alternative alcohol warning labels that differed in: (a) length, (b) presence of qualifier words, (c) alternative content, and (d) specific beverage. The specific risks mentioned were more important than the overall label length, qualifier words reduced avoidance responses, various alternative warnings elicited more avoidance responses than the existing alcohol warning label, and more avoidance responses were made to labels on a whiskey bottle than on a beer bottle. Warnings with the words "poison," "cancer," or "health problems" were the most powerful. The results for college students in Study 1 were replicated in a high-school sample in Study 2.

This study investigates a metaphorical account of bulimia that proposes that bulimics lack a clearly defined sense of self, and subsequently utilize their physical bodies as a means of self-definition and regulation. Three major aspects of this perspective were assessed: identity disturbance; use of the binge and purge as means of emotional regulation; and sensitivity to interpersonal contact. Differences among bulimics, binge eaters, and normal controls were explored. Bulimics reported greater amounts of identity confusion, enmeshment, and overall instability in self-concept than normal controls and binge eaters. The binge led to an escape from self-awareness for bulimics, and the purge served to manage negative affect. Bulimics also showed greater sensitivity to interpersonal contact with positive people, and with their mother than both binge eaters and controls. Implications of the findings are discussed as well as future directions for research. © 1993 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Extreme overreaction to nonrisky contact with persons with AIDS is considered to be a case of the operation of the sympathetic magical law of contagion. Prior work has shown that this principle (once in contact, always in contact) holds in the belief systems of American adults. In this paper, we show that four characteristics of this law correspond to the attitudes of college students toward AIDS: (a) actual physical contact is a critical factor in determining negative reactions, (b) even very brief contact is capable of transmitting substantial negative properties (dose insensitivity), (c) the effects of even brief contact are long lasting (permanence), and (d) the effects of contact can occur in a direction opposite to that of the normal causal arrow (backward contagion). We conclude that the magical law of contagion provides a useful way of formulating overconcern about the transmission of AIDS.

The two major laws of sympathetic magic, the "law of similarity" and the "law of contagion," were considered to be universal laws of thought by the anthropologists who identified and elaborated them (Tylor 1974[1871]; Frazer 1959[1922]; and Mauss 1972[1902]. The law of similarity holds that things that resemble one another at a superficial level (e.g., in appearance or in some distinctive feature or features) also share more fundamental properties. It can at times involve a conflation of the representation of an object with the object itself (as Mauss summarized: the image equals the object) and/or an assumption that similar things can influence each other ("like produces like"). An example of the law of similarity at work is the common magical practice of making a doll to represent one's intended target (e.g., an enemy) and damaging it in some way to bring

Cognitive escape provides a model for examining the cognitive processes involved in escaping from thoughts of HIV/AIDS in a population of men who have sex with men (MSM). This investigation presents psychometric information and validation data on the Cognitive Escape Scale (CES), a measure of HIV-related cognitive avoidance. This study also examined the associations between the CES and self-report measures of theoretically related constructs, including HIV-related worry, sensation-seeking, depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and risky sexual behaviors. Participants were 709 MSM (71% White, 13% Latino, 8% African-American, 6% Native American; M age = 35). The CES measured HIV-related thought avoidance. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a 3-factor structure to the CES, suggesting three strategies of cognitive escape: fatalism/short-term thinking, thought suppression/distraction, and alcohol/drug use. These factors are differentially related to several variables of interest including risky sexual behaviors. Although the CES is designed for use with both HIV negative and positive men, correlates differed between groups.

This study investigated the relationship between suppressing thoughts about HIV risk and several outcomes related to HIV risk, including sexual risk behavior and HIV prevention service use, in men who have sex with men (MSM). Synthesizing the ironic processing theory (D. M. Wegner, 1994) with a cognitive escape paradigm (D. J. McKiman, D. G. Ostrow, & B. Hope, 1996), it was hypothesized that thought suppression might increase risk by leading MSM to "escape" from sexual safety norms and engage in risky sex behaviors and, via a paradoxical process, increase future use of community prevention services. Results from a sample of MSM (N = 709) indicated that thought suppression was positively related to concurrent sexual risk behavior and to future use of prevention services.

A growing body of research implicates internalized homophobia--the internalization of society's antihomosexual sentiments by gay and lesbian people--as a factor contributing to HIV-related sexual risk behavior in gay and bisexual men. Although accumulating evidence links internalized homophobia and sexual risk behavior, no study has explored the impact of internalized homophobia on efforts to prevent these behaviors. This paper examines the effect of internalized homophobia on gay and bisexual men's awareness of participation in, and perceptions of programs offered by a community-based HIV prevention organization. In Study 1, 595 gay and bisexual men reported their levels of awareness of and participation in HIV prevention programming offered by one community organization. Internalized homophobia was negatively related to men's awareness of the services offered by the organization. However, among the men who were aware of at least one service, internalized homophobia did not further predict service utilization. Study 2 examined 89 gay and bisexual men who participated for a single session in a group-structured, community-based HIV preventive intervention. Pre- to immediate postintervention change in perceptions of condom use self-efficacy was inversely related to internalized homophobia. Internalized homophobia was also a significant negative predictor of the extent to which participants felt similar to and related well with other members of the group. Together, these findings suggest that internalized homophobia may pose multiple barriers to community-based HIV prevention efforts.