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Interviews with a multilingual synesthete (MLS), who experiences colored letters for Roman and Cyrillic alphabets and for digits, revealed stable synesthetic experiences over 2½ – 5 years. Colors of Cyrillic letters were based on Roman letters. Four Stroop tests involving both types of letters showed that MLS was able to name print color faster if the colors matched her synesthetic colors, showing that synesthesia is automatic. Letter-naming times for blocks of color were slower than those of actual letters, supporting unidirectionality of synesthesia. Stroop tests with Roman, but not Cyrillic, letters showed MLS acquired new temporary letter–color pairings and her color-naming times for these were not different from those for her original synesthetic colors.

This research tested the relationship between text structural variables (on vs. off the causal chain, active vs. static information, and hierarchical structure) and reader perceptions, reading time, and true-false performance for procedural texts. Twenty-four college-age participants each read 3 procedural texts. As predicted, sentences that were (a) on the causal chain, (b) active, and (c) associated with task steps were read more slowly and judged to be more important (p < .05). The results were similar to those previously found with narratives, except for the hierarchical structure variable. Also as predicted, text differences were found such that as the variation in the type of information contained in the text increased, relationships with the structural variables increased.

Two experiments tested the effect that synaesthesia has on the processing of digits for a single participant, a 22-year-old female college student, who experiences colour mental images (photisms) for digits, music, sounds, etc. The experiments used Stroop-type materials that were digits in the colours of her photisms for two tasks: colour naming and digit naming. For colour naming, the hypothesis was that when the colour of the actual print of the digit mismatched the colour of the participant's digit photism, colour naming times would be slower than when the print and digit photism matched, or when the digit was in black print. For digit naming, it was predicted that naming the digit corresponding to a coloured circle (that corresponded to one of her photisms for digits) would take longer than naming digits printed in any colour. ANOVAs and Tukey tests supported these hypotheses (P< .01). Synaesthesia seems to occur automatically, involuntarily, and unidirectionally for this participant. Details of her s...

This experiment tested the effect that purpose for reading or instructional set has on reading rates, recall, and task performance for procedural text. It also tested whether comprehension models proposed by Kintsch and van Dijk (1978) and Trabasso and Sperry (1985) are predictive of text processing for procedural text. Forty‐eight college students read text for one of two purposes: (a) to perform the task described by the text (Read‐to‐Do), or (b) to recall the text (Read‐to‐Recall). Participants read one of two procedural texts for two reading trials. The results showed that, as predicted, Read‐to‐Do participants performed the task better and Read‐to‐Recall participants recalled the text better. In addition, Read‐to‐Do participants recalled less of the information judged to be less important for performing the task than Read‐to‐Recall participants. Reading rate varied as a function of high and low importance of the information to task performance and varied more for the Read‐to‐Do participants than for ...

Two models of text comprehension, a referential model proposed by Kintsch and van Dijk (1978) and a causal model proposed by Trabasso and Sperry (1985), were tested in two experiments with eight procedural texts. In Experiment 1, 24 female college students rated the importance of propositions, idea units, and sentences to the overall procedure described in the texts on a 7‐point scale. In Experiment 2, 16 female college students recalled each of the eight texts immediately after reading it. Predictors derived from the models were used to predict the ratings and the recall in multiple regression analyses. The results showed that the amount of variance accounted for by the predictors varied from text to text. For the ratings, the causal model accounted for significantly more variance than the referential model. For the recall, the causal model generally accounted for more variance but the difference was not significant. For the referential model, level within the hierarchy accounted for the most variance an...

To investigate the effects of color-digit synesthesia on numerical representation, we presented a synesthete, called SE, in the present study, and controls with mathematical equations for verification. In Experiment 1, SE verified addition equations made up of digits that either matched or mismatched her color-digit photisms or were in black. In Experiment 2A, the addends were presented in the different color conditions and the solution was presented in black, whereas in Experiment 2B the addends were presented in black and the solutions were presented in the different color conditions. In Experiment 3, multiplication and division equations were presented in the same color conditions as in Experiment 1. SE responded significantly faster to equations that matched her photisms than to those that did not; controls did not show this effect. These results suggest that photisms influence the processing of digits in arithmetic verification, replicating and extending previous findings.

SE, a 19-year-old female college student and a color–grapheme synesthete, reported consistent synesthetic experiences (photisms) for digits, and most letters in the Roman and Hebrew alphabets over a 6-month period. Photisms for later-learned Hebrew letters were influenced by those of the Roman alphabet and photisms for auditorily presented words were influenced by the spelling of the words. As hypothesized, in two studies, SE's solution times for addition problems were significantly slower when the colors of the digits in the problems mismatched her synesthetic photisms than when they matched or were in black ( p < 0.001), whereas color had no effect on solution times for six female non-synesthetes (aged 19 to 22 years). Implications for learning and cognitive processing are discussed.

A multilingual, colored-letter synesthete professor (MLS), 9 nonsynesthete multilingual professors and 4 nonsynesthete art professors learned 30 names of individuals (first and last name pairs) in three trials. They recalled the names after each trial and six months later, as well as performed cued recall trials initially and after six months. As hypothesized, MLS recalled significantly more names than control groups on all free recall tests (except after the first trial) and on cued recall tests. In addition, MLS gave qualitatively different reasons for remembering names than any individual control participant. MLS gave mostly color reasons for remembering the names, whereas nonsynesthetes gave reasons based on familiarity or language or art knowledge. Results on standardized memory tests showed that MLS had average performance on non- language visual memory tests (the Benton Visual Retention Test-Revised – BURT-R – and the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test – CFT), but had superior memory performance on a verbal test consisting of lists of nouns (Rey Auditory- Verbal Learning Test – RAVLT). MLS's synesthesia seems to aid memory for visually or auditorily presented language stimuli (names and nouns), but not for non-language visual stimuli (simple and complex figures).

We explored synesthetic experiences (photisms) elicited by music and notes for GS, a 22-year-old female college student, who is a genuine digit synesthete (Mills et al 1999 Cognitive Neuropsychology16 181–191). After extensive interviews, we conducted five studies using synthesizer notes in different octaves and in different instrument sounds. GS described, drew, or selected her photisms from alternatives. The results were: (a) her photisms had shape, color, movement, and texture; (b) different instruments had photisms with different shapes and families of instruments had similar shapes; (c) low-pitched notes were darker and larger than high notes; (d) instrument and pitch affected each other; (e) a given note was perceived as darker after a high note than after a low note; and (f) GS's drawings of notes became more consistent with repeated trials. Theoretical observations are discussed on the basis of these results.

In two experiments, subjects interacted to different extents with relevant devices while reading two complex multistep procedural texts and were then tested with task performance time, true/false, and recall measures. While reading, subjects performed the task (read and do), saw the experimenter perform the task (read and see experimenter do), imagined doing the task (read and imagine), looked at the device while reading (read and see), or only read (read only). Van Dijk and Kintsch's (1983) text representation theory led to the prediction that exposure to the task device (in the read-and-do, read-and-see, and read-and-see-experimenter-do conditions) would lead to the development of a stronger situation model and therefore faster task performance, whereas the read-only and read-and-see conditions would lead to a better textbase, and therefore better performance on the true/false and recall tasks. Paivio's (1991) dual coding theory led to the opposite prediction for recall. The results supported the text representation theory with task performance and recall. The read-and-see condition produced consistently good performance on the true/false measure. Amount of text study time contributed to recall performance. These findings support the notion that information available while reading leads to differential development of representations in memory, which, in turn, causes differences in performance on various measures.

In two experiments, tape-recorded strings of seven recall digits were preceded by a redundant stimulus prefix containing either one or three digits. The prefix and recall digits (1) were articulatorily continuous, or (2)were made discontinuous by tape-splicing, or (3)were made discontinuous by deliberately spoken prosodic contour. Subjects were instructed to ignore the redundant prefixes and report only the recall digits. The main results were: (1)Compared to strings preceded by no prefix, all prefix conditions reduced recall. (2)Three-digit prefixes reduced recall less than one-digit prefixes. (3) In most cases, spliced prefixes reduced recall less than intact prefixes. Acoustic waveform measurements are presented to provide a partial account for the results.

The experiments test an alternative interpretation for previous findings indicating that RT is faster to syllables than to phonemes. This interpretation is based on the match (or mismatch) of the phonetic contexts of targets and stimuli. Subjects listened for targets /b/ or /s/, which were presented in a vowel context that subjects were instructed to ignore. For both targets, when the vowel contexts of the target and stimulus matched, that is, were the same vowel, RT was faster than when they mismatched, that is, were different vowels. RT to syllable targets was found to be equal to RT to phoneme, matched-context targets. The results supported the target—stimulus mismatch interpretation.

Neisser, Hoenig, and Goldstein (1969) reduced the “stimulus prefix effect” (diminished recall of seven digits preceded by a redundant prefix) when the redundant prefix and the recall digits were produced by different speakers. In the present studies, similar results were obtained using one speaker only, but with the prefix and recall digits spoken separately in different utterances and combined by tape splicing. The results support a hypothesis concerning the perception of intact, wholistically organized articulatory units. A second hypothesis, also based on the idea of intact articulatory units, was tested.

Two experiments are reported on subjects’ ability to attend to an auditory channel (i.e., ear of input). The subjects’ task was to identify the last tone (target) in a sequence of tones as “sharp ” or “dull. ” The results indicated that when all tones of a given sequence were presented in the same ear, the target was more easily and rapidly identified than when half of the tones were randomly presented to each ear. For sequences in which half of the tones were presented to each ear, the greater the number of successive tones in the same ear as the target, the better or faster the target was identified. Differences were generally greater with a shorter intertone interval (250 msec) than with a longer one (600 msec). The results show that “attentional ” effects can occur when prior inputs are present on a given auditory channel.

This paper reviews empirical studies concerning the readability of text from computer screens. The review focuses on the form and physical attributes of complex, realistic displays of text material. Most studies comparing paper and computer screen readability show that screens are less readable than paper. There are many factors that could affect the readability of computer screens. The factors explored in this review are the features of characters, the formatting of the screen, the contrast and color of the characters and background, and dynamic aspects of the screen. Numerous areas for future research are pinpointed.

Timing sensitivity, age, and sex were studied as possible predictors of success in hearing adults’ learning of sign language. Four measures of success in sign language learning were used: semester grade in a sign language course, and evaluations by teachers of signing, fingerspelling, and overall expressive skills. The results revealed that timing sensitivity and age do predict sign language learning success. Those more sensitive to timing features learn sign language better than those less sensitive, and younger adults learn sign language better than do older adults. The relation of timing sensitivity to sign language learning suggests that timing is an important dimension of sign language.

The subject’s task was to listen to continuous utterances and to press a reaction-time (RT) button upon hearing an assigned phoneme target. Stimulus materials were utterances of 7–13 syllables in length excised from tape-recorded spontaneous speech; each contained a target located in early, middle or late positions in the utterance. Either 200 msec of silence was tape-spliced into the utterance 33, 67, or 100 msec prior to the target, or the utterance was left intact (as spoken). The main results were faster RT to targets following the silent interval by 33 msec than to targets in the intact version or targets following the silent interval by 100 msec, that is, facilitative effects on target RT varied directly with proximity to target of silent interval. As with previous results using citation-form stimulus materials, these results were interpreted in terms of information from anticipatory coarticulation provided to the subject in advance, permitting extra time to allow the target to be anticipated across the silent interval.

Introduction Part I. Learning: 1. Some basic assumptions 2. Classical conditioning 3. Conditioning principles and theories 4. Reinforcement 5. Reinforcement applications 6. Punishment 7. Theories of reinforcement Part II. Memory: 8. Memory: an introduction 9. Sensory and working memory 10. Long-term memory 11. Retrieval 12. Practical applications Part III. Learning and Memory: 13. Neural networks.

The effect on learning manual signs of four predictor variables was tested by learners’ ratings. The variables are translucency (perceived relationship between a sign and its referent), complexity judged as relative difficulty in producing the sign, rated concreteness of the sign referent, and frequency of occurrence of the word glossing the sign referent. The first three (translucency, complexity, and concreteness) were rated by 80 sign-naive hearing adults, who also provided the sign learning data. Frequency of the word (used to gloss the sign) was taken from Kucera & Francis (1967). Correlational analyses showed that translucency and concreteness are significant predictors of sign learning. These variables had similar effects in two different learning contexts: signs presented with semantically similar signs and with formationally similar signs. In addition, frequency was a significant predictor in the latter context. These results have implications for teaching sign language signs to hearing adults.

AdvancedResearch ResourcesOrganization, Bethesda, Mary/and20814 In two experiments, sign-naive subjects aequired the meanings for manual signs of Ameri­ can Sign Langnage by learning to respond with the English word equivalents when signs were presented. The results showed that when the signs on a to-be-learned list were related to eaeh other in handshape eonfiguration (eheremieally similar), they were more diffieult to aequire than when semantieally similar. Whether the similar signs were grouped together during presentation or were separated by other dissimilar signs had no effeet on the number of signs eorreetly aequired. These results were the same for the identieal signs learned in the eheremieally or semantieally similar eontexts as for the lists as a whole. The results have implieations for teaehing sign langnage to hearing adults, The purpose of the present experiments was to answer two questions concerning the ability of hearing adults to acquire manual signs (e.g., signs of American Sign Language): (1) Are signs correctly acquired after fewer trials when they are presented in the context of signs that look similar (cherernie similarity) or in the context of signs that are similar in meaning (semantic similarity)? (2) Are signs correct1y acquired after fewer trials when similar signs are grouped in a given learning session or when similar signs are not grouped together? Two skills are important in acquiring a language: receptive skills (recognizing or knowing what is said) and productive skills (being able to say something). The present studies concern the acquisition of the receptive skills, that is, the ability to "recognize" manual signs by responding with English word equivalents when the signs are presented. The recognition of manual signs may be thought of as a paired associate task in which the visual presenta­ tion of the sign is the stimulus and an English word cor­ responding to a meaning of the sign is the response. A well established phenomenon in paired associate learn­ ing is that similarity among items retards acquisition

We conducted experiments on the effects of brief prior exposure to time-altered speech on preferred listening rate and the rate listeners would select when asked to listen to speech as fast as possible with good comprehension (induced listening rate). In Exp. 1, 48 participants were exposed either to normal rate speech or to speech compressed to twice-normal rate. Brief exposure to twice-normal rate speech led to a faster induced listening rate than exposure to normal rate speech. In Exp. 2, 31 participants were briefly exposed to normal rate speech, speech compressed to twice-normal rate, or speech expanded to half-normal rate. The faster the rate of the exposure speech, the faster the induced rate. Speech compressed to twice-normal rate led to a faster induced listening rate than exposure to speech expanded to half-normal rate. Normal rate speech was intermediate between twice-normal and half-normal rate and did not differ significantly from them. Induced listening rate was a linear combination of listening rate preference and recent forced exposure to time-altered speech.

In experiments reported earlier at ASA meetings (November, 1975) and elsewhere, reaction time (RT) of subjects monitoring stop‐consonant phoneme targets in tape‐recorded sentences was observed. RT was compared when the target (a) was carried by the normal, intact sentence version or (b) was temporally displaced by experimental intervention, that is, separated from prior sentence context by addition of 200 msec to the normal pre‐stop‐consonant silent interval. Faster RT to temporally displaced than to normal targets was interpreted in terms of coarticulatory cues to target existing in the speech interval preceding the intervention which were used to anticipate the target across the intervention interval. In further analysis, data were separated on the basis of four classes of pretarget phonetic context: stop, fricative, sonorant, and vowel. All classes produced coarticulatory effects (relatively faster RT to displaced compared to normal targets), some more than others. Additional analysis indicated similar effects in the normal sentence versions also. Discussion concerns the mapping of perceptual results onto acoustic and articulatory data. [Work supported by NIMH, ARIBSS.]

The objective of this symposium is to provide different perspectives on how screen design in computer systems can be improved. Screen design refers to the layout and format of all computer screen information. This includes tutorials, help panels, prompts, and messages. Since screen design affects how easily information can be retrieved or stored, it determines how effectively the computer system can be used. Finding ways to improve screen design should be an important goal in the development of virtually all interactive programs. Achieving good screen design is becoming even more important as programs are used by more people, particularly those not familiar with computers, and as more information is presented online. The presenters for this symposium provide a wide range of views, experiences, and approaches for improving screen design. As a result, they each contribute unique methods and suggestions. Annette Bradford provides guidelines and views of screen design based on her work as an information developer. Joe Dumas provides views of screen design based on his work as an interface analyst. David A. Schell provides views on usability testing of screen design. Thomas Tullis provides an alternative way of testing screen design with his research-based computer program.