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Acknowledgements This study was funded by the European Commission, under the LIFE Nature and Biodiversity program, as part of the project LIFE-DIVAQUA (Proyecto LIFE18 NAT/ES/000121). We also like to thank all the Spanish government agencies and research institutions who provided information, answered the questionnaires and participated in the workshop “Synthesis of the monitoring programs of global change in aquatic ecosystems SMNP: Autonomous Organism of National Parks, MAPAMA-Dir. Gral. Agua, Universidad de Granada, Instituto Universitario de Investigación del Agua, (IdeA-UGR), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, CISE-P.N. Sierra de Guadarrama, Fundación Biodiversidad, CEAB-CSIC, IGME, MNCN-CSIC, Universidad de Córdoba, Universidad de Barcelona and ICTA-UAB. We also like to thank the 28 European Nation Parks who responded our query. The authors finally thank the support provided by Christoph Wohner in the use of the DEIMS-SDR., Electronic supplementary material The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02466-x., Data Availability The datasets used to review the monitoring programs at the Global scale conducted in the ILTER nodes that are included in Rivers (ILTER-Rivers) or Lakes (ILTER-Lakes) are available at the DEIMS dataset registry (DEIMS-SDR) (for more details see: Wohner et al. 2019; https://deims.org/). The datasets used to review the monitoring programs at the European scale conducted in the EMNP are available by requesting them via email to the corresponding EMNP. The datasets used to review the monitoring programs at the National scale conducted in the five SMNP are mostly included in this article and it supplementary information file. In addition, meteorological data recorded by the Spanish Global Change Monitoring Network in available at the Meteorological data download web application (https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/redparques- nacionales/red-seguimiento/acceso-datos.aspx). Further and more detailed information is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request., Funding This study was carried out with the financial support of the EU LIFE programme, as part of the project LIFE-DIVAQUA (Proyecto LIFE18 NAT/ES/000121). The information showed in this publication only reflects the point of view of the authors. The European Comission and CINEA cannot be held responsible for any use which be made of the information contained here. Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature., Identifying and quantifying global change impacts on biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems is critical to promote an effective adaptation that increases the success of conservation strategies. To achieve this goal, global and regional assessment efforts require certain degree of harmonization on local monitoring programs to establish relevant comparisons at different spatio-temporal scales. Otherwise, the lack of harmonization might hinder the detection and assessment on the effects of human impacts. In this work we have compiled information on freshwater monitoring programs located in areas of intensive research and conservation interest: International Long Term Ecological Research (ILTER) nodes and mountain National Parks. We aimed at evaluating the quality and robustness of these programs to assess the impact of global change, addressing from the worldwide to the European and Spanish national scale. Results highlighted that freshwater monitoring programs lack a common strategy to monitor these ecosystems. Even at the continental and national scales, contrasting strategies and level of detail have been historically applied. Water quality, habitat and biodiversity are more commonly monitored than community structure and ecosystem functioning. Monitoring efforts on the Spanish Mountain National parks indicated differences on the targeted aquatic ecosystems. Rivers and lakes received a higher attention, while mires were rarely considered. Our results provide evidence that greater efforts should be directed towards constructing a coordinated strategy to monitor freshwater ecosystems at national, continental, and global scales. This strategy should involve a shared backbone of biophysical and biogeochemical variables for each habitat type on agreed protocols that are implemented across regions and administrative borders. Achieving this will support a substantial advance on the ecological research to further delineate proper conservation strategies to face the challenges imposed by global change., European Commission LIFE18 NAT/ES/000121

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPQ) Fundacao de Apoio a Pesquisa do Distrito Federal (FAPDF), Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas (FAPEAM), BIODIVERSA/FAPEAM, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPQ), Bundesministerium fuer Bildung und Forschung, Coordenacao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nivel Superior (CAPES), FAPEAM-Program POSGRAD, Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), INPA/MCTI 465540/2014-7, Leibniz Competition 0621187/2017, Leibniz-Gemeinschaft R20F0002, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazpnia, unidade de~pesquisa Ministerio da Ciencia, Tecnologia e Inovacoes (INPA/MCTI) 403758/2021-1, Programa Peixe Vivo of the Companhia Energetica de Minas Gerais 033W034A, Royal Society of New Zealand, Tertiary Education Commission, Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP), Foundation for Science and Technology, Associate LaboratoryARNET J45/2018, CEEC

In this paper we describe the main morphological characteristics that distinguish the full-grown larva of Erotesis schachti, an endemic of the Iberian Peninsula. The conspecificity of the larva and adult was confirmed by DNA analysis. Morphological features that easily discriminate it from the similar species Erotesis baltica are given.

Evaluating data quality and inventory completeness must be a preliminary step inany biodiversity research, particularly in the case of insects and high biodiversityareas. Yet, this step is often neglected or, at best, assessed only for one insectgroup, and the degree of congruence of sampling effort ffor different insect groupsremains unexplored. We assess the congruence in the spatial distribution of sampling effort for fiveinsect groups (butterflies, caddisflies, dung beetles, moths, and aquatic beetles) inthe Iberian Peninsula. We identify well-surveyed areas for each taxonomic groupand examine the degree to which the patterns of sampling effort can be explainedby a set of variables related to environmental conditions and accessibility. Irrespective of the general lack of reliable inventories, we found a general but lowcongruence in the completeness patterns of the different taxa. This suggests thatthere is not a common geographical pattern in survey effort and that idiosyncraticand contingent factors (mainly the proximity to the workplaces of entomologists)are differentially affecting each group. After many decades of taxonomic and faunistic work, distributional databases ofIberian insects are still in a very preliminary stage, thus limiting our capacity toobtain reliable answers to basic and applied questions. We recommend carrying out long-term, standardised and well-designed entomolog-ical surveys able to generate a reliable image of the distribution of different insect groups. This will allow us to estimate accurately insect trends and better under-stand the full extent of global biodiversity loss., This study has been supported by the projects BioWeb (MINECO:CGL2011-15622-E BOS), BANDENCO (JCMM: POII11-0277-5747)and IBERARTRO (SBPLY/17/180501/000492) founded by European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Consejería de Educación, Ciencia y Cultura, Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha. David Sánchez-Fernández is funded by a postdoctoral contract fromthe Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Ramón y Cajal program; RYC2019-027446-I

Climate change is predicted to progressively shift habitat characteristics that will alter the distribution and eco-physiological responses of organisms. High-elevation stream insects without extensive dispersal are expected to be highly vulnerable if they are unable to track predicted shifts. Understanding dispersal is therefore crucial to implement practical solutions in conservation. The evolutionary history of the Palaearctic genus Annitella (Trichoptera), the population dynamics and habitat distribution (present and future) of two endemic species (A. esparraguera and A. iglesiasi) confined to Baetic Mountains (SE-Iberian Peninsula) were assessed to gain fundamental insights into species responses to climate warming and to identify populations at risk. Diversification of Annitella was dated to the Pleistocene and was likely associated with southern and extra-Mediterranean refugia located across Europe. The two endemic species belong to distant lineages that preferred similar cold headwater pristine habitats. The range of A. esparraguera was larger than that of A. iglesiasi. Both species showed low genetic diversity in cox1, but only A. esparraguera exhibit locally unique haplotypes, indicating limited gene flow. For A. esparraguera, modelled future habitat suitability showed 88.4% range contraction by 2050 (RCP scenario 8.5) and a displacement of 41.5% of the current potential distribution to higher elevations. Populations of A. esparraguera are predicted to be lost because of the reduction of optimal habitat and limited propensity for tracking future suitable conditions. Beyond the preservation of their current habitat, their conservation might require proactive measures (translocations). Similar predictions may apply to other Mediterranean endemic headwater specialist restricted to isolated high-elevation streams.

The caddisfly fauna of Algeria is far from complete. In this study, we present data from Trichoptera sampling in northwestern Algeria (Tafna and Ghazouana River basins) during 2014–2019, enhancing knowledge of this group in the country. We were able to identify 30 species and 17 genera in the study area. Among the listed taxa, five species (Hydroptila fortunata, Ecnomus deceptor, Tinodes waeneri, Limnephilus lunatus, Setodes argentipunctellus,) are new records for Algeria. An updated species checklist of Algerian Trichoptera includes 63 species. We also provide an update of the Maghreb checklist with comments on species distributions. The Maghrebian caddisfly checklist, which includes 44 Maghrebian endemic species, is still very poor in relation to that of neighboring Mediterranean geographical areas and countries, such as the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), France, or Italy.

The larva of Stenophylax fissus (McLachlan 1875) is redescribed, illustrated, and compared with morphologically similar Limnephilidae larvae from the Iberian Peninsula. In addition, the sequence of the mtCOI gene in the barcode region of one individual is reported. Likewise, the barcode and the conspecificity between two larvae and one female of the non-sequenced species S. crossotus are given. In addition, the high genetic diversity among S. sequax populations is highlighted, suggesting a complex of cryptic species. Finally, a diagnostic matrix of the known larvae of Stenophylax species from the Iberian Peninsula is provided.

The main purpose of our paper is to document genus Hydropsyche (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) in northwestern Algeria and to provide the larval descriptions of the species set. Larvae, pupae, and imagines were collected from 14 sampling sites over a five-year period (2014–2019). Eight Hydropsyche species have been identified, with Hydropsyche siltalai being a new record for Algeria and North Africa, and Hydropsyche pellucidula a new record for Algeria. A comparison of our checklist with those of the Moroccan Rif and Europe is provided, as well as the geographical distribution of each species. This Algerian Hydropsyche species revision provides precise and reliable taxonomic characters for distinguishing larvae of the species, and a taxonomic key is proposed for their identification. In addition, information regarding their distribution is included.

The study was supported by the COST Action CA15113 Science and Management of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams (http://www.smires.eu), funded by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). NC was supported by the French research program Make Our Planet Great Again. MC-A was supported by the MECODISPER project (CTM2017-89295-P) funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO) - Agencia Estatal de Investigacion (AEI) and cofunded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). AC-R acknowledges funding by MINECO-AEI-ERDF (CGL2014-53140-P). CG-C was supported by the EDRF (COMPETE2020 and PT2020) and the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, through the CBMA strategic program UID/BIA/04050/2019 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007569) and the STREAMECO project (Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning under climate change: from the gene to the stream, PTDC/CTA-AMB/31245/2017). JH was supported by the project 'Global taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity of stream macroinvertebrate communities: unravelling spatial trends, ecological determinants and anthropogenic threats' funded by the Academy of Finland. PP and MP were supported by the Czech Science Foundation (P505-20-17305S). ZC was supported by the projects EFOP-3.6.1.-16-2016-00004, 20765-3/2018/FEKUTSTRAT and TUDFO/47138/2019-ITM. We thank two anonymous reviewers for insightful feedback that improved an earlier draft of this manuscript., Dispersal is an essential process in population and community dynamics, but is difficult to measure in the field. In freshwater ecosystems, information on biological traits related to organisms’ morphology, life history and behaviour provides useful dispersal proxies, but information remains scattered or unpublished for many taxa. We compiled information on multiple dispersal-related biological traits of European aquatic macroinvertebrates in a unique resource, the DISPERSE database. DISPERSE includes nine dispersal-related traits subdivided into 39 trait categories for 480 taxa, including Annelida, Mollusca, Platyhelminthes, and Arthropoda such as Crustacea and Insecta, generally at the genus level. Information within DISPERSE can be used to address fundamental research questions in metapopulation ecology, metacommunity ecology, macroecology and evolutionary ecology. Information on dispersal proxies can be applied to improve predictions of ecological responses to global change, and to inform improvements to biomonitoring, conservation and management strategies. The diverse sources used in DISPERSE complement existing trait databases by providing new information on dispersal traits, most of which would not otherwise be accessible to the scientific community., COST Action Science and Management of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams - COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) CA15113, French research program Make Our Planet Great Again, MECODISPER project - Spanish Ministerio de Economia, Industria y Competitividad (MINECO) - Agencia Estatal de Investigacion (AEI) CTM2017-89295-P, European Union (EU), MINECO-AEI-ERDF CGL2014-53140-P, EDRF (COMPETE2020), Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, through the CBMA strategic program UID/BIA/04050/2019 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007569), STREAMECO project (Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning under climate change: from the gene to the stream) PTDC/CTA-AMB/31245/2017, project 'Global taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity of stream macroinvertebrate communities: unravelling spatial trends, ecological determinants and anthropogenic threats' - Academy of Finland, Grant Agency of the Czech Republic P505-20-17305S, EDRF (PT2020), EFOP-3.6.1.-16-2016-00004, 20765-3/2018/FEKUTSTRAT, TUDFO/47138/2019-ITM

Motivation Dispersal is an essential process in population and community dynamics but is difficult to measure in the field. In freshwater systems, relevant information on the dispersal of many taxa remains scattered or unpublished, and biological traits related to organisms’ morphology, life history and behaviour offer useful dispersal proxies. We compiled information on selected dispersal-related biological traits of European aquatic macroinvertebrates in a unique source: the DISPERSE database. Information within DISPERSE can be used to address fundamental questions in metapopulation ecology, metacommunity ecology, macroecology, and eco-evolutionary research. From an applied perspective, the consideration of dispersal proxies can also improve predictions of ecological responses to global change, and contribute to more effective biomonitoring and conservation management strategies. Main types of variable contained Selected macroinvertebrate dispersal-related biological traits: maximum body size, adult female wing length, adult wing pair type, adult life span, number of reproductive cycles per year, lifelong fecundity, dispersal mode (i.e. active, passive, aquatic, aerial), and propensity to drift. Spatial location Europe. Time period Taxa considered are extant with recent records. Most data were collected in the 20th century and in the period 2000-2019. Major taxa and level of measurement Aquatic macroinvertebrates from riverine and lacustrine ecosystems, including Mollusca, Annelida, Platyhelminthes, and Arthropoda such as Crustacea and Insecta. For Insecta, aquatic stages and the aerial (i.e. flying) phases of adults were considered separately. Genus-level taxonomic resolution used, except for some Annelida and Diptera, which are coded at the sub-class, family or sub-family level. In total, the database includes 39 trait categories grouped into nine dispersal-related traits for 480 taxa. Software format The data file is in Excel workbook. BIOSKETCH Many of the authors are members of the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action CA15113 Science and Management of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams (SMIRES, www.smires.eu ), which aims to improve our understanding of intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams (IRES) and translate this into science-based, sustainable management of river networks. One of the main goals of SMIRES is to facilitate sharing of data and experience, bringing together researchers from many disciplines and stakeholders and creating synergies through networking. The dataset provided and analyzed herein reflects networking and collaboration within the SMIRES working group dedicated to Community Ecology and Biomonitoring.

International audience; Gut microbiota are essential for host health and survival, but we are still far from understanding the processes involved in shaping their composition and evolution. Controlled experimental work under lab conditions as well as human studies pointed at environmental factors (i.e., diet) as the main determinant of the microbiota with little evidence of genetic effects, while comparative interspecific studies detected significant phylogenetic effects. Different species, however, also differ in diet, feeding behavior, and environmental characteristics of habitats, all of which also vary interspecifically, and, therefore, can potentially explain most of the detected phylogenetic patterns. Here, we take advantage of the reproductive strategy of avian brood parasites and investigate gut microbiotas (esophageal (food and saliva) and intestinal) of great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) and magpie (Pica pica) nestlings that grow in the same nests. We also estimated diet received by each nestling and explored its association with gut microbiota characteristics. Although esophageal microbiota of magpies and great spotted cuckoos raised within the same environment (nest) did not vary, the microbiota of cloacal samples showed clear interspecific differences. Moreover, diet of great spotted cuckoo and magpie nestlings explained the microbiota composition of esophageal samples, but not of cloaca samples. These results strongly suggest a genetic component determining the intestinal microbiota of host and parasitic bird species, indicating that interspecific differences in gut morphology and physiology are responsible for such interspecific differences

Rivers in Mediterranean high mountains are especially vulnerable to climate change because these areas are characterized by extreme climatic conditions of snowy winters and relatively frequent summer droughts. Climate induced alterations in temperature and the magnitude of high and low river flows are expected to have significant effects on aquatic fauna. Here, we analysed changes in the caddisfly communities of the Sierra Nevada during a 20-year period on an altitudinal gradient range of 952–3050 m. Furthermore, we related these changes to an observed increase in air temperature and decrease in river flow over the last 40 years. Overall, caddisfly species richness increased but patterns varied depending on altitude in a non-linear shape. Richness increased in altitude with maximum values at sites of intermediate-high altitude (1800–2000 m). The effects of the observed climate change may be explained by the colonization of headwaters and middle reaches from mid-lowland species or by those from streams and rivers in nearby mountain chains at lower altitude. The observed richness increase and its association with environmental conditions suggest that mountains with a considerable altitudinal gradient may function as refuges for species and populations during periods of climatic change, which strength the importance of the conservation of mountainous habitat.

The larva of Stenophylax espanioli Schmid 1957 is described, illustrated, and compared with morphologically similar Limnephilidae larvae from the Iberian Peninsula. In addition, the sequence of fragments of the mtCOI gene in the barcode region of two individuals are reported and registered in the GenBank Database. Finally, a synoptic key of the known larvae of Stenophylax species from the Iberian Peninsula is given.

Four new species of the genus Atopsyche Banks (Hydrobiosidae) from Pantepui biogeographical region (Venezuela) are described and illustrated: Atopsyche (Atopsaura) inmae n. sp., Atopsyche (Atopsaura) cristinae n. sp., Atopsyche (Atopsaura) svitoki n. sp., and Atopsyche (Atopsaura) carmenae n. sp. Molecular analyses (cox1 sequences) allowed larva-adult associations and the morphological description of larvae of two of the new species (A. inmae and A. cristinae). A phylogenetic tree is performed to assess the molecular validity of the species, establish evolutionary relation among them and interpret historical biogeography of tepuis. Finally, two new distributional records for A. (Atopsaura) atahuallpa are included, which up to now was known only from the type locality.

And 15,364 scientist signatories from 184 countries., Twenty-five years ago, the Union of Concerned Scientists and more than 1700 independent scientists, including the majority of living Nobel laureates in the sciences, penned the 1992 "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity" (see supplemental file S1). These concerned professionals called on humankind to curtail environmental destruction and cautioned that "a great change in our stewardship of the Earth and the life on it is required, if vast human misery is to be avoided." In their manifesto, they showed that humans were on a collision course with the natural world. They expressed concern about current, impending, or potential damage on planet Earth involving ozone depletion, freshwater availability, marine life depletion, ocean dead zones, forest loss, biodiversity destruction, climate change, and continued human population growth. They proclaimed that fundamental changes were urgently needed to avoid the consequences our present course would bring.

Community assembly is determined by a combination of historical events and contemporary processes that are difficult to disentangle, but eco-evolutionary mechanisms may be uncovered by the joint analysis of species and genetic diversity across multiple sites. Mountain streams across Europe harbour highly diverse macroinvertebrate communities whose composition and turnover (replacement of taxa) among sites and regions remain poorly known. We studied whole-community biodiversity within and among six mountain regions along a latitudinal transect from Morocco to Scandinavia at three levels of taxonomic hierarchy: genus, species and haplotypes. Using DNA barcoding of four insect families (>3100 individuals, 118 species) across 62 streams, we found that measures of local and regional diversity and intraregional turnover generally declined slightly towards northern latitudes. However, at all hierarchical levels we found complete (haplotype) or high (species, genus) turnover among regions (and even among sites within regions), which counters the expectations of Pleistocene postglacial northward expansion from southern refugia. Species distributions were mostly correlated with environmental conditions, suggesting a strong role of lineage- or species-specific traits in determining local and latitudinal community composition, lineage diversification and phylogenetic community structure (e.g., loss of Coleoptera, but not Ephemeroptera, at northern sites). High intraspecific genetic structure within regions, even in northernmost sites, reflects species-specific dispersal and demographic histories and indicates postglacial migration from geographically scattered refugia, rather than from only southern areas. Overall, patterns were not strongly concordant across hierarchical levels, but consistent with the overriding influence of environmental factors determining community composition at the species and genus levels. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Climate change will cause relict alpine glaciers to disappear within decades. Associated high-altitude streams will face significant hydrological changes that might affect population genetic diversity of lotic species. In a recent study of glacier-fed streams in the Pyrenees, Finn et al. (2013) predicted that a large proportion of regional genetic diversity of the mayfly Baetis alpinus would be lost as glacial meltwater sources disappear. We expanded the analysis of Finn et al. to include genetic data (mitochondrial barcoding region) collected from B. alpinus occupying recently deglaciated locations including multiple basins in 2 mountain ranges (Sierra Nevada and Picos de Europa) on the Iberian Peninsula and 1 additional, deglaciated Pyrenean basin. We hypothesized that regional genetic diversity at scales of entire mountain ranges (γ diversity) and population structure within ranges (β diversity) would be lower in recently deglaciated mountain ranges than in the still-glaciated Pyrenees. For 4 c...

Animals often announce their unprofitability to predators through conspicuous coloured signals. Here we tested whether the apparently conspicuous colour designs of the four European Coraciiformes and Upupiformes species may have evolved as aposematic signals, or whether instead they imply a cost in terms of predation risk. Because previous studies suggested that these species are unpalatable, we hypothesized that predators could avoid targeting them based on their colours. An experiment was performed where two artificial models of each bird species were exposed simultaneously to raptor predators, one painted so as to resemble the real colour design of these birds, and the other one painted using cryptic colours. Additionally, we used field data on the black kite’s diet to compare the selection of these four species to that of other avian prey. Conspicuous models were attacked in equal or higher proportions than their cryptic counterparts, and the attack rate on the four species increased with their respective degree of contrast against natural backgrounds. The analysis of the predator’s diet revealed that the two least attacked species were negatively selected in nature despite their abundance. Both conspicuous and cryptic models of one of the studied species (the hoopoe) received fewer attacks than cryptic models of the other three species, suggesting that predators may avoid this species for characteristics other than colour. Globally, our results suggest that the colour of coraciiforms and upupiforms does not function as an aposematic signal that advises predators of their unprofitability, but also that conspicuous colours may increase predation risk in some species, supporting thus the handicap hypothesis.

DNA barcoding was intended as a means to provide species-level identifications through associating DNA sequences from unknown specimens to those from curated reference specimens. Although barcodes were not designed for phylogenetics, they can be beneficial to the completion of the Tree of Life. The barcode database for Trichoptera is relatively comprehensive, with data from every family, approximately two-thirds of the genera, and one-third of the described species. Most Trichoptera, as with most of life's species, have never been subjected to any formal phylogenetic analysis. Here, we present a phylogeny with over 16 000 unique haplotypes as a working hypothesis that can be updated as our estimates improve. We suggest a strategy of implementing constrained tree searches, which allow larger datasets to dictate the backbone phylogeny, while the barcode data fill out the tips of the tree. We also discuss how this phylogeny could be used to focus taxonomic attention on ambiguous species boundaries and hidden biodiversity. We suggest that systematists continue to differentiate between ‘Barcode Index Numbers’ (BINs) and ‘species’ that have been formally described. Each has utility, but they are not synonyms. We highlight examples of integrative taxonomy, using both barcodes and morphology for species description. This article is part of the themed issue ‘From DNA barcodes to biomes’.

Aim The evolutionary processes structuring the composition of communities remain unclear due to the complexity of factors active at various spatial and temporal scales. Here, we conducted ecological and evolutionary analyses of communities of caddisflies in the genus Hydropsyche (Insecta: Trichoptera) composed of ecomorphologically differentiated species. Location River ecosystems in the Iberian Peninsula and northern Morocco. Methods Nineteen environmental variables were assessed at 180 local study sites and species presence/absence at these sites was used to determine their ecological niche. The evolutionary framework for all 19 species of Hydropsyche encountered was generated by phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene and three nuclear genes: wingless, elongation factor 1-alpha and 28S RNA. The phylogenetic tree was used: (1) to assess evolutionary niche conservatism by ecological trait correlation with the tree; and (2) to analyse the phylogenetic relatedness of community member species, at three spatial scales (local stream reaches, drainage basins, biogeographical regions). Results Ecological measurements grouped most species into either headwater, mid-stream or lowland specialists, and traits presumably relevant to river zonation were found to be phylogenetically conservative. Species assemblages at local stream reaches were mostly mono- or dispecific. Species diversity increased at larger spatial scales, by adding species with non-overlapping ecological niches at the level of river basins and by turnover of anciently differentiated lineages at the level of biogeographical regions. This indicates the effects of competition and niche filtering on community structure locally, and ancient ecological diversification and allopatric speciation, respectively, in building up the species pool at basin and biogeographical scales. Main conclusions The study demonstrates the importance of scale (grain size) in studying what determines community composition. Current ecological factors (i.e. competitive exclusion) in Hydropsyche were evident only when studying narrow local sites, while studies of assemblages at larger spatial scales instead demonstrated the roles of ecological niche differentiation, phylogenetic history of trait diversification and allopatric speciation. Increasing the grain size of investigation reveals different portions of correlated spatial and evolutionary processes.

1. The effect of mating success, female fecundity and survival probability associated with intra-sex variation in body size was studied in Mesophylax aspersus, a caddisfly species with female-biased sexual size dimorphism, which inhabits temporary streams and aestivates in caves. Adults of this species do not feed and females have to mature eggs during aestivation. 2. Thus, females of larger size should have a fitness advantage because they can harbour more energy reserves that could influence fecundity and probability of survival until reproduction. In contrast, males of smaller size might have competitive advantages over others in mating success. 3. These hypotheses were tested by comparing the sex ratio and body size of individuals captured before and after the aestivation period. The associations between body size and female fecundity, and between mating success and body size of males, were explored under laboratory conditions. 4. During the aestivation period, the sex ratio changed from 1 : 1 to male biased (4 : 1), and a directional selection on body size was detected for females but not for males. Moreover, larger clutches were laid by females of larger size. Finally, differences in mating success between small and large males were not detected. These results suggest that natural selection (i.e. the differential mortality of females associated with body size) together with possible fecundity advantages, are important factors responsible of the sexual size dimorphism of M. aspersus. 5. These results highlight the importance of taking into account mechanisms other than those traditionally used to explain sexual dimorphism. Natural selection acting on sources of variation, such as survival, may be as important as fecundity and sexual selection in driving the evolution of sexual size dimorphism.

Hydropsyche pellucidula and Hydropsyche incognita (Trichoptera, Hydropsychidae) are common and distinguishable species in central Europe. After a review of adult material, the existence of H. pellucidula in the westernmost Mediterranean Basin was considered doubtful and determined that only H. incognita and another close species, Hydropsyche iberomaroccana, were present. Larvae of these three species are indistinguishable when applying traditional morphological keys. Using molecular analyses (cox1 gene sequences), we investigated larvae–adult associations in order to find morphological characteristics to distinguish and identify larvae. Genetic analyses detected the presence of these three species in the westernmost Mediterranean. H. pellucidula was found to be widespread along the Iberian Peninsula while H. incognita was only found in basins draining from high mountain ranges. H. iberomaroccana was distributed in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. Using genetically identified material, ...

Aim To examine how the employment of both community- and population-level approaches can provide a wider view of the importance of contemporary and historical factors on current species distribution. We posit that community ecology should provide more information about contemporary factors, whereas population genetics should provide better information about historical factors. Location Rivers of the western Mediterranean Basin, including four subregions differing in geological history: the Iberian Plate, Transitional, Betic and Rif. Methods For a community-level approach, Trichoptera richness and community composition were compared between subregions using species accumulation curves and a correspondence analysis. For a population-level approach, the mtDNA cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene of specimens of the Trichoptera midstream-lowland species Chimarra marginata (L.) was sequenced and analysed using phylogeographical methods. Results The community approach revealed that historical events had more influence on headwater communities than contemporary ecological factors, whereas historical events had negligible influence on midstream-lowland communities. In midstream-lowland sites, however, the population approach showed that the genetic structure of C. marginata differed significantly between subregions and revealed patterns of historical gene migration. In terms of species richness, the Rif subregion had the lowest value per basin due to local climatic features and isolation. Main conclusions Both community- and population-level approaches yielded information about the effects of historical factors on species distribution. However, the importance of historical events on current Trichoptera communities depends on the river zonation. Unlike headwater sites, midstream-lowland sites showed signs of historical events at the population level but not at the community level at the scale used, indicating that both approaches should be employed together in biogeographical studies. Lack of detection of historical events at the community level does not necessarily mean that they are negligible. Most likely, the organizational level used is not appropriate. We also stress the importance of implementing conservation measures for rivers in the western Mediterranean, especially under future scenarios of climate change and human disturbances in the Mediterranean Basin.

We analysed the sensitivity of European Trichoptera (caddisfly) species to climate change impacts based on their distribution and ecological preferences, and compared the fraction of species potentially endangered by climate change between the European ecoregions. The study covers 23 European ecoregions as defined by Illies (1978). For 1134 Trichoptera species and subspecies, we coded 29 parameters describing biological and ecological preferences and distribution based on the evaluation of more than 1400 literature references. Five parameters served to describe the species’ sensitivity to climate change impacts: endemism, preference for springs, preference for cold water temperatures, short emergence period, and restricted ecological niches in terms of feeding types. Of the European Trichoptera species and subspecies, 47.9% are endemic, 23.1% have a strong preference for springs, 21.9% are cold stenothermic, 35.5% have a short emergence period, and 43.7% are feeding type specialists. The fraction of endemic species meeting at least one of the four other sensitivity criteria mentioned above is highest in the Iberic-Macaronesian Region (30.2% of all species), about 20% in several other south European ecoregions, and about 10% in high mountain ranges. In 15 out of 23 ecoregions (including all northern European and lowland ecoregions) the proportion is less than 3%.

Trichoptera is a very rich order in the Western Mediterranean, but knowledge of caddisflies in the Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa is still not complete. We present records of caddisflies collected in 114 sites of the Mediterranean climate region of the Iberian Peninsula and the western Rif. We also provide notes on ecological aspects and taxonomical remarks on some species. Atotal of 86 species were identified and 8 species extended their distribution range. Considering the four differentiated geological regions in the western Mediterranean Basin during the Tertiary, 60 species were collected in the Iberian plate region, 29 in the Transition, 30 in the Betic and 18 in the Rif. Local richness was not significantly different between the four regions but significant differences were found among several river ecotypes within regions. Temporary sites had lower local richness than other ecotypes in all regions except in the Rif, whereas headwaters had similar richness in any region regardless of their geology. The Rif region had the lowest Trichoptera richness, which is not only the result of the scarcity of faunistic studies in the area but also of the high frequency of temporary rivers and the isolation of the area. Our results suggest that conservation measures addressed to preserve the biodiversity of the Western Mediterranean should be enforced, especially in the Rif region.El orden Trichoptera es rico en especies en la zona del Mediterráneo Occidental, pero el conocimiento de este grupo en la Península Ibérica y el norte de África resta aún de ser completo. Presentamos datos de tricópteros recolectados en 114 localidades de la región Mediterránea de la Península Ibérica y del Rif occidental. Además, proporcionamos datos sobre la ecología de algunas especies así como notas taxonómicas. Se identificaron un total de 86 especies y el rango de distribución aumentó para 8 de ellas. Sesenta especies se recolectaron en la región de la placa Ibérica, 29 en la de Transición, 30 en la Bética y 18 en el Rif, las cuatro regiones geológicas diferenciadas durante el Terciario en el Mediterráneo Occidental. La riqueza local no fue significativamente diferente entre regiones geológicas, pero sí entre varios ecotipos fluviales. Los tramos temporales presentaron una riqueza local menor que los demás ecotipos, excepto en el Rif, mientras que las cabeceras presentaban una riqueza similar en cada región independientemente de su geología. Globalmente el Rif presentó una menor riqueza de tricópteros, lo que se explica no sólo por la escasez de estudios faunísticos en la zona sino también por la elevada frecuencia de ríos temporales y su aislamiento geográfico. Nuestros resultados sugieren que en la zona del Mediterráneo Occidental se deben de llevar a cabo medidas de conservación urgentes para preservar su biodiversidad, especialmente en la región del Rif.

In Spain, a national project known as GUADALMED, focusing on Mediterranean streams, has been carried out from 1998 to 2005 to implement the European water framework directive (WFD) requirements. One of the main objectives of the second phase of the project (2002-2005) was to develop a predictive system for the Spanish Mediterranean aquatic macroinvertebrate communities. A combined-season (spring, summer, and autumn) predictive model was developed by using the latest improvements on the selection of best predictor variables. Overall model performance measures were used to select the best discriminant function (DF) models, and also to evaluate their biases and precision. The final predictive model was based on the best five DF models. Each one of these models involved eight environmental variables. Final observed (O), expected (E), and O/E values for the number of macroinvertebrate families (NFAM) and two biotic indices (IBMWP and IASPT) were calculated by averaging their values, previously weighted by the quality of each DF model. Regression analyses among the final O and E values for the calibration dataset showed a high proximity to the ideal theoretical model, where the final E values explained 73-84% of the variation present in the macroinvertebrate communities of the Spanish Mediterranean watercourses. The ANOVA performed among the reference (calibration and validation) and test datasets showed clear differences for the O/E values. Finally, the assessments carried out by the predictive model were sensitive to anthropogenic pressure present in the study area and allowed the definition of five ecological status classes according to the WFD requirements.

Summary 1. Factors explaining the end of diapause include environmental conditions such as daily photoperiod, temperature and humidity. However, because all these factors are almost constant inside deep caves, they would hardly affect diapause termination in many animal taxa that use such habitats in which to aestivate or hibernate (such as bats and some insects, snakes or frogs). 2. An innate biological signal, based on body reserves (mass), could determine the end of diapause in cave-dwelling animals. Another possibility is that the diapausing animals may use as a stimulus convective air circulation, produced by a fall in temperature outside the cave to a value below that inside (i.e. temperature inversions). Here, we explored these two non-exclusive hypotheses explaining the end of diapause and the start of migration in the caddis Mesophylax aspersus. This species aestivates as an adult in caves, as a physiological adaptation to seasonal drought and stream drying. 3. The variation in body mass of individuals entering and leaving the cave was similar, suggesting no role for the ‘reserve level’ hypothesis in breaking diapause. However, the onset of a temperature inversion in autumn coincided with the breaking of diapause followed after a few days by the migration of the caddisflies. 4. We conclude that the seasonal air currents, produced by thermal inversions, could be the migration stimulus for caddisflies and many other animals that spend a period of diapause in caves.

Summary 1. According to the guidelines of the European Water Framework Directive, assessment of the ecological quality of streams and rivers should be based on ecotype-specific reference conditions. Here, we assess two approaches for establishing a typology for Mediterranean streams: a top-down approach using environmental variables and bottom-up approach using macroinvertebrate assemblages. 2. Classification of 162 sites using environmental variables resulted in five ecotypes: (i) temporary streams; (ii) evaporite calcareous streams at medium altitude; (iii) siliceous headwater streams at high altitude; (iv) calcareous headwater streams at medium to high altitude and (v) large watercourses. 3. Macroinvertebrate communities of minimally disturbed sites (n = 105), grouped using UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages) on Bray–Curtis similarities, were used to validate four of the five ecotypes obtained using environmental variables; ecotype 5, large watercourses, was not included as this group had no reference sites. 4. Analysis of similarities (anosim) showed that macroinvertebrate assemblage composition differed among three of the four ecotypes, resulting in differences between the bottom-up and top-down classification approaches. Siliceous streams were clearly different from the other three ecotypes, evaporite and calcareous ecotypes did not show large differences in macroinvertebrate assemblages and temporary streams formed a very heterogeneous group because of large variability in salinity and hydrology. 5. This study showed that stream classification schemes based on environmental variables need to be validated using biological variables. Furthermore, our findings indicate that special attention should be given to the classification of temporary streams.

Descriptions of the previously unknown larvae of Annitella esparraguera and A. iglesiasi, two European endemic species from the southern Iberian Peninsula are presented. The most important diagnostic features are illustrated and some taxonomic, zoogeographical and ecological notes are given. In addition, a previous key is modified to include these two new Iberian Limnephilidae larvae.

Notalina roraima Holzenthal 1986 was described on the basis of a single holotype specimen from the Pantepui Region. The species is a member of the endemic Neotropical long-horned caddisfly (Trichoptera: Leptoceridae) subgenus Notalina (Neonotalina) Holzenthal 1986. We present new records of this species and describe some morphological variation in the male genitalia. Moreover, we describe and illustrate the larva of this species and include information of its habitat. We also differentiate it from N. morsei, the only larva of the subgenus Neonotalina described until now.

Summary 1. Contemporary species distributions are determined by a mixture of ecological and historical filters acting on several spatial and temporal scales. Mediterranean climate areas are one of the world's biodiversity hotspots with a high level of endemicity, which is linked to complex ecological and historical factors. 2. This paper explores the ecological and historical factors constraining the distribution of caddisfly species on a large regional scale. A total of 69 taxa were collected from 140 sampling sites in 10 Iberian Mediterranean river basins. Approximately 74% of taxa can be considered rare, with the southern basins (the Baetic–Riffian region) having greater endemicity. The greatest richness, involving a mixture of northern and southern species, was found in the transitional area between the Baetic–Riffian region and the Hesperic Massif. 3. The historical processes occurring during the Tertiary (i.e. the junction of the Eurasian and African plates) explained 3.1% of species distribution, whereas ecological factors accounted for 20.7%. Only 0.3% was explained by the interaction of history and ecology. A set of multi‐scale ecological variables (i.e. basin, reach and bedform characteristics) defined five river types with specific caddisfly assemblages. The commonest caddisfly species accounted for the regional distribution pattern, while rare taxa contributed to the explanation of subtle patterns not shown by common species. 4. Despite the importance of historical factors for biogeography and the large scale used in our study, ecological variables better explained caddisfly distribution. This may be explained by the length of time since the historical process we are considering, the high dispersion and colonisation capacity of many caddisfly species, and the strong environmental gradient in the area. Because of the historical and environmental complexity of Mediterranean areas, rare taxa should be included in ecological studies so that the singularity of these ecosystems is not missed.

Caddisflies are a well represented group with high species diversity in Mediterranean climate rivers. Although they are widely used in water quality assessment, little is known of the ecological profiles of families or species. We present a simple score for ecological profiles which measures intolerance to water quality. The ecological profiles of caddisflies are diverse and the degree of tolerance at the family level is related to species diversity and the tolerance of individual species to water quality. Comparisons with the scores used in the biotic index IBMWP show general agreement between the degree of intolerance of a family and its score in the IBMWP, with few exceptions. Studies on tolerance are required to elucidate the autecology of taxa, and to develop biological indices, especially in areas with high species diversity.

As a result of the GUADALMED project, undertaken in Iberian Mediterranean basins, to which were added samples taken by the junior author in the area, we collected numerous caddisfly larvae, pupae and adults. Some larvae were also reared in the lab to obtain adults and allow proper identification. A total of 90 species were identified, which accounts for more than a fourth of the species known in the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Here we confirm the presence of doubtful species in the Iberian Peninsula (Glyphotaelius pellucidus) and we expand the distribution range of others (Lype reducta, Micrasema minimum, Limnephilus guadarramicus, Sericostoma pyrenaicum). Moreover, because of the unconformity of morphological larval characteristics with present taxonomical keys (Mesophylax aspersus) or lack of larvae descriptions (Allogamus mortoni, Stenophylax espanioli), here we include some relevant taxonomical aspects that are useful to identify larvae. A brief description of the larva of a possible new species of Hydropsyche (from now on H. gr. instabilis) is also given.Como resultado de los estudios realizados en el proyecto GUADALMED en las cuencas de los ríos mediterráneos peninsulares y otros muestreos realizados por la primera autora del trabajo se han recolectado numerosas larvas, pupas y adultos de tricópteros. Algunas larvas fueron criadas en el laboratorio para la obtención de adultos y con ello asegurar su identificación. Se han identificado un total de 90 especies que suponen más de una cuarta parte de las especies actualmente conocidas en la Península Ibérica y Baleares. En este trabajo se confirma la presencia, hasta ahora dudosa en la Península Ibérica, de algunas especies (Glyphotaelius pellucidus) y se amplia el área de distribución de otras (Lype reducta, Micrasema minimum, Limnephilus guadarramicus, Sericostoma pyrenaicum). Además, se incluyen algunos aspectos taxonómicos relevantes para la identificación de algunas larvas en futuros estudios, debido a que las claves ya existentes no describen correctamente la larva (Mesophylax aspersus) o porque se trata de larvas sin describir (Allogamus mortoni, Stenophylax espanioli). Se añade también una somera descripción de la larva de una posible nueva especie de Hydropsyche (citada aquí como H. gr. instabilis) y que requiere un estudio más detallado.

A new species of Hydropsyche of the instabilis-group, H. fontinalis sp. n., from the southern Iberian Peninsula is described. Diagnostic features of the male, female and larva (5th instar) are described and illustrated, and additional information on larval habitat and ecological notes are included.

In total 24 species of aquatic Empididae (Clinocerinae and Hemerodromiinae) are known from the Sierra Nevada Mountains of Spain, including five new species (Hemerodromia planti IvkovićSinclair sp. nov., Kowarzia nevadensis SinclairIvković sp. nov., Wiedemannia darioi SinclairIvković sp. nov., W. horvati IvkovićSinclair sp. nov. and W. vedranae IvkovićSinclair sp. nov.). The new species are described, illustrated and distribution of all species listed. Wiedemannia (Philolutra) angelieri Vaillant and W. (Roederella) ouedorum Vaillant are newly recorded in Sierra Nevada and nine species are endemic to this region. A key to all 24 species of aquatic empidids is presented.

Breakdown rates and colonisation of leaves from four tree or scrub species differing in quality are studied upstream and downstream of the Canales reservoir, a dam located in the headwater of the River Genil, Sierra Nevada, in southern Spain. This dam, with hypolimnetic release, displays short-term fluctuations of discharge and nutrient enrichment in the tailwater during the study period. Breakdown rates of the four leaf species studied do not differ between sites, despite the higher dissolved nutrient concentration in the tailwater. This lack of differences is attributed to the potentially high physical breakage of leaves during peak flows that are of higher magnitude at the upstream site. The invertebrate density in leaf bags does not differ between sites, and Chironomidae and Ephemeroptera are the numerically dominant taxa at both sites. With regard to functional feeding groups, the scarcity and lack of significant differences between sites for shredders do not match the trend predicted by the Serial Discontinuity Concept in relation to the effect of a headwater dam. Possibly, the discharge fluctuations at both sites causes excessive instability of the natural substrate (leaf litter) for the shredder guild. However, as expected, the biomass of collectors colonising leaf bags is significantly higher at the tailwater, which might be explained not in terms of quantity, but as a consequence of the higher nutritional quality of the fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) accumulated in leaf bags at this site, owing to the eutrophication caused by the dam. Despite the scarcity of functional shredders at both sites, at the community level, the leaf material is significantly more ingested at the upstream site, suggesting the importance of this source of nutrition for the trophic web at this site in contrast with the tailwater, as predicted by the Serial Discontinuity Concept. This also suggests that caution is needed in using functional feeding groups as trophic guilds to infer system-level trophic dynamics in streams, given the prevalence of generalist feeders among benthic macroinvertebrates in these environments. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Cerambycid beetles have exaggerated antennae that are usually sexually size-dimorphic. We investigated the relationship between antenna morphology and sexual selection in the species Stenurella melanura (L.) in which males on average have antennae that are 13% longer than those of females. Males and females aggregate at flowers near oviposition sites for feeding during June-August. We sampled both copulating and single individuals at these sites. Fluctuating asymmetry (a measure of developmental instability) in antennae was considerably larger than in tibia and elytra and males had larger degrees of asymmetry in their antennae than females. Mated individuals did not differ from unmated individuals with respect to any of three size variables, but antennal asymmetry was smaller in mated individuals of both sexes. When two males were released with a female on a flower, males with symmetric antennae more often won the fight over the female than expected by chance. When two females and a male were released on a flower, the male more often preferred the female with more symmetric antennae than expected by chance. These results suggest that antennal symmetry, but not length, is currently under sexual selection.Copyright 1997 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour

A new colour pattern of the larva of Rhyacophila meridionalis is described and compared to the larval kinds of this species known up‐to‐now and to the other larvae belonging to subgenus Rhyacophila s.s. Some ecological notes on the locality in the Iberian Peninsula where these larvae were found are included.

Chemical defences against predators are widespread in the animal kingdom although have been seldom reported in birds. Here, we investigate the possibility that the orange liquid that nestlings of an insectivorous bird, the Eurasian roller (Coracias garrulus), expel when scared at their nests acts as a chemical defence against predators. We studied the diet of nestling rollers and vomit origin, its chemical composition and deterrent effect on a mammal generalist predator. We also hypothesized that nestling rollers, as their main prey (i.e. grasshoppers) do from plants, could sequester chemicals from their prey for their use. Grasshoppers, that also regurgitate when facing to a threat, store the harmful substances used by plants to defend themselves against herbivores. We found that nestling rollers only vomit after being grasped and moved. The production of vomit depended on food consumption and the vomit contained two deterrent chemicals (hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids) stored by grasshoppers and used by plants to diminish herbivory, suggesting that they originate from the rollers’ prey. Finally, we showed for the first time that the oral secretion of a vertebrate had a deterrent effect on a model predator because vomit of nestling rollers made meat distasteful to dogs. These results support the idea that the vomit of nestling rollers is a chemical defence against predators., Financial support was provided by the Junta de Andalucía (project P06-RNM-02177) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education/FEDER (projects CGL2008-00718 and CGL2011-27561).

In this study we compared water-quality results obtained by a modified version of the Biological Monitoring Working Party Score System (BMWP′, a multimetric method) with those from multivariate methods--TWINSPAN and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA)--in a river basin in southern Spain affected by organic pollution. Main environmental variables correlated to macroinvertebrate distributions were identified by CCA. Biological quality of the water was assessed by the BMWP′ biotic index, which classified the sites according to the tolerance of taxa to organic pollution. TWINSPAN was used to classify the sites according to benthic communities, and CCA was performed to establish the relationships among groups of sites, taxa, and abiotic variables. The results showed a clear separation of river sites according to their water composition and degree of pollution; nutrient content and water hardness were the main factors influencing the faunal distribution. Most of the sites in the study area were polluted, an...

SUMMAR Y 1. The occurrence of larvae of Limnephilus coenosus and L. vittatus (Trichoptera) was recorded in 103 rock pools both before and after the dry periods in spring‐summer (April‐May and July‐early August), when a great number of the pools dried out. In early spring, 84% of the pools sampled contained larvae of at least one of the species. Limnephilus coenosus larvae were present in a higher proportion of pools that later dried out than in the permanent ones, while L. vittatus larvae were predominantly found in permanent pools. Larvae of both species were found together in 31% of the inhabited pools. 2. Laboratory experiments, designed to elucidate differential survival under drought conditions, demonstrated that the organic cases of L. coenosus larvae held water more efficiently than did the mineral L. vittatus cases. Full-grown (fifth instar) L. coenosus larvae also survived dry conditions better than did L. vittatus larvae. The higher survival of L. coenosus was due to a combination of drought-resistant case material and a higher survival ability of the larvae themselves. 3. Limnephilus vittatus larvae were restricted by their low capability to withstand desiccation, although case material and food were available for L. vittatus larvae in all pools. Absence of case material and high-quality food in many pools, however, restricted the presence of L. coenosus larvae, but this species did not suffer from heavy mortality because of desiccation and all pool populations of L. coenosus survived until pupation. 4. The differences in species composition in these temporary and permanent pools can be explained by the differential site selection by ovipositing females, as well as by larval survival. The intrinsically greater survival of L. coenosus larvae during drought, together with the water-retaining properties of the cases, allowed this species to exploit stressful and risky habitats, such as temporary pools.

Biological indices based on macroinvertebrates offer advantages for testing water quality. Nevertheless, a common criticism is that these indices show seasonal dependence. To elucidate this matter, 60 sits were sampled over a two-year cycle, and the BMWP' and ASPT' biotic indices (adaptation of the Biological Monitoring Working Party Score System and Average Score Per Taxon for the Iberian Peninsula) were calculated. Annual variations in the indices were studied (considering, separately, only non-polluted sites, and grouping polluted and clean-water sites together) and compared for changes in temperature, the factor most characteristic of seasonality. Moreover, the correlations with physical factors (altitude, slope of stretch, flow, temperature, distance from the source) and chemical parameters (pH, conductivity, nitrates, nitrites, ammonium, phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, COD, iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, oils and fats, detergents and pesticides) were analysed. Both indices were found to be negatively related with parameters indicative of pollution. From a multiple regression, a good score prediction using physical and chemical data (for BMWP' as for ASPT') was obtained. For non-polluted sites, the variability of the BMWP' (and its significance with respect to water quality) in relation to seasonality was quite reduced and not significant, but the ASPT' showed a significant dependence on temperature. The relationship of these indices to temperature in all sites (polluted and clean) was negative in both cases, indicating that the relationship is caused more by pollution than by seasonality.