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The dynamics of blue and green water partitioning under vegetation and climate change, as well as their different interactions during wet and dry periods, are poorly understood in the literature. We analyzed the impact of vegetation changes on blue water generation in a central Spanish Pyrenees basin undergoing intense afforestation. We found that vegetation change is a key driver of large decreases in blue water availability. The effect of vegetation increase is amplified during dry years, and mainly during the dry season, with streamflow reductions of more than 50%. This pattern can be attributed primarily to increased plant water consumption. Our findings highlight the importance of vegetation changes in reinforcing the decrease in water resource availability. With aridity expected to rise in southern Europe over the next few decades, interactions between climate and land management practices appear to be amplifying future hydrological drought risk in the region., This work was supported by projects CGL2017-82216-R, PCI2019-103631, and PID2019-108589RA-I00 financed by the Spanish Commission of Science and Technology and FEDER; CROSSDRO project financed by AXIS (Assess-ment of Cross(X)-sectoral climate Impacts and pathways for Sustainable transformation), JPI-Climate co-funded call of the European Commission and INDECIS which is part of ERA4CS, an ERA-NET initiated by JPI Climate, and funded by FORMAS (SE), DLR (DE), BMWFW (AT), IFD (DK), MINECO (ES), ANR (FR) with co-funding by the European Union (Grant 690462). Dhais Peña-Angulo received a “Juan de la Cierva” postdoctoral contract (FJCI-2017-33652 Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, MEC). Miquel Tomas-Burguera received a “Juan de la Cierva” postdoctoral contract (FJCI-2019-039261-I Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation). C. Azorin-Molina and S. Grainger. acknowledge funding from the Irish Environmental Protection Agency grant 2019-CCRP-MS.60. C. Juez acknowl-edges funding from the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodows-ka-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number 834329-SEDILAND.

Human-induced afforestation has been one of the main policies for environmental management of farmland abandonment in Mediterranean areas. Over the last decades, several studies have reviewed the impact of afforestation activities on geomorphological and hydrological responses and soil properties, although few studies have evaluated the effects on water table dynamics. In parallel to human-induced afforestation activities, natural revegetation occurred in abandoned fields and in fields where the intensity of human activity declined, driving the expansion of shrubs. This research addresses the spatial and temporal variability of water table dynamics in a small afforested sub-catchment located in the Central Spanish Pyrenees. Differences between afforestation (Pinus nigra and Pinus sylvestris) and natural plant colonization (shrubs, mainly Genista scorpius, Buxus sempervirens, and Juniperus communis) and early abandoned meadows (G. scorpius), are analysed in terms of runoff generation and seasonal water table depth dynamics. Precipitation, runoff and water table datasets recorded for the 2014–2019 period are used. Results show a high temporal and spatial variability with large fluctuations in discharge and water table. Groundwater dynamics varied markedly over the year, identifying a wet and dry period with different responses suggesting different runoff generation processes (Hortonian flow during dry and wet periods, and saturation excess runoff during wet conditions). Furthermore, important differences are noted among the various land cover types: (i) in the natural revegetation area (shrubland and meadows) a marked seasonal cycle was observed with short saturation periods during winter and spring; and (ii) in the afforestation areas, the water table dynamics showed a seasonal cycle with a high variability, with fast responses and rapid oscillations. Likewise, the relationship between the depth of water table and hydrological variables was not straightforward, suggesting complex hydrological behaviour., This work was funded by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number 834329-SEDILAND, and by the MANMOUNT project (PID2019-105983RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, funded by MICINN-FEDER).

Sediment transport is the main driver of the channel morphology and landscape evolution, with implications for chemical and biological river processes, and human-related activities. Understanding the processes governing the relations between discharge and suspended sediments is essential for the management of river catchments and river networks. Here, we use the method of wavelet transformation to identify the time-scale dependency of suspended sediment patterns concerning the temporally and spatially uneven transient processes of sediment production, accumulation, and transport. We analyze the temporal variation of concurrent discharge and suspended sediment fluxes for the Upper Changjiang (Yangtze River, China) at Pingshan station by using a long-term database collected for over 50 years. Furthermore, we bridge the limitations of pure predictive models to learn from temporal data structures with the main purpose of identifying the mechanisms underpinning the suspended sediment patterns (e.g., climatic forces). Intraseasonal-to-seasonal, annual, and inter-annual dominant time-scales are thus identified. The short time-scales are driven by the bi-modal seasonal precipitation pattern specific to the climate of the region and provide a continuous supply of sediments to the river. The large time-scales, controlled by high magnitude flow events and within-reach sediment storage, display alternating periods of increasing and decreasing sediment fluxes; ultimately, they maintain the river channel within balance or within a moderate positive sediment accumulation process. This analysis and methodology help to understand temporal sediment dynamics, and ultimately to manage river catchments., This work was funded by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number SEDILAND-834329.

Land cover and historical land use practices are the leading drivers of the hydrological response in most catchments systems. Timing, periodicity and magnitude of precipitation-discharge feedbacks are thus impacted by such site-specific characteristics. We analysed the long-term precipitation and discharge databases of four experimental catchments located in the Central Spanish Pyrenees and thus similar in their climate. Furthermore, they have a gradient of land cover (from a relatively pristine forested catchment, through an abandoned cultivated catchment with progressive plant recolonization, to an afforested catchment and ending by a bare degraded badland catchment); so, form a solid benchmark to assess such dynamic changes. For the analysis of the long-term precipitation and discharge time-series we use the wavelet transform methodology, which proves valuable to segregate the continuous hydrological response of the catchments in different and non-similar dominant time-scales. Precipitation and discharge events are not just identified and analysed in terms of magnitude or correlation relationships but also the time-localization of each transient precipitation and discharge events is retrieved. We thus no impose any fixed periodicity in the occurrence of hydrological events and ultimately, we are able to infer the real and site-specific temporal variability of each dataset through which we can infer the timing, variability and physical mechanisms of water storage/transport in each catchment. Thereby, this analysis reveals the land-cover-discharge feedbacks that takes place at different time-scales.

Macro-roughness elements, such as lateral cavities and embayments, are usually built in the banks of rivers for different purposes. They can be used to create harbors, or to promote morphological diversity that enhance habitat suitability in an attempt to restore the sediment cycle in channelized rivers. In presence of lateral cavities, shallow water flows may exhibit a rhythmic water surface oscillation, called seiche. The formation of the seiche is triggered by the partially bounded in-cavity water body which leads to the generation of a standing wave. Amplitude and periodicity of the seiche is jointly controlled by the dominant eigenmodes of the standing wave and by the turbulent shear layer structures created at the opening of the cavity. Seiches have been studied in the past decades putting the focus on their impact on river hydrodynamics and morphodynamics. However, the study of the seiches from an energy harvesting perspective is still unexplored. Seiche waves could represent a distributed hydropower source with a low environmental impact, being energy extraction possibly integrated with river restoration works. In this work, we use an in-house numerical simulation model to reproduce the water surface oscillation in a channel with multiple lateral cavities and study their wave energy potential. The interaction of multiple cavities has an additional effect in the propagation and formation of multiple standing waves, ultimately leading to two-dimensional and multi-modal seiche waves. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the seiche amplitude and energy spatial distribution is presented.

From the mid-twentieth century, Mediterranean mountains were affected by a rapid and generalized land abandonment process. This chapter (1) summarizes the impacts of land abandonment on the hydrological dynamics in Mediterranean mountain areas; (2) evaluates post-land abandonment management practices (LMPs) for flood mitigation based on nature-based solutions (NBS); and (3) briefly discusses some examples in the Central Pyrenees. In general, land abandonment resulted in a natural colonization by shrubs and forests, which, in turn, led to a decrease in river discharges and sediment yields. NBS, as mitigation measures to control flood occurrence, have been carried out including afforestation, shrub clearing, landscape changes, and recovery of terraces and stonewalls. In addition, in the most hydrogeomorphologically active areas, a combination of NBS and grey infrastructures was used to control floods. Grey infrastructures produce immediate effects but they are short-lived and expensive solutions. LMPs based on NBS present advantages and disadvantages: (1) afforestation was the most common practice, reducing floods, hydrological connectivity, peak flows, and sediment yields, in spite of their lower impact in extreme events; (2) shrub clearing decreases the number of forest fires and maintains the occurrence of the most frequent floods; (3) the recovery of mosaic landscapes produces environmental consequences, being important sources of ecosystem services, such as the regulation of floods; and (4) the recovery of agricultural terraces and stonewalls is highly expensive, but presents social and cultural benefits, reducing hydrological connectivity, peak flows, and runoff. In the near future, NBS in abandoned lands should be based on cost-effective and long-term strategies to mitigate flood risk. NBS should be cost-effective, ensure longer lifetime than grey infrastructures, and be adapted to different local objectives and global scenarios.

Sediment transport is the major driver of changes in most catchments systems. Beyond landscape evolution and river geomorphology, sediment dynamics are an important component of a number of physical, chemical and biological processes in river basins. Sediments thus impact the ecology of rivers, sustainability of human infrastructure and basin level fluxes of nutrients and carbon. For this reason, it is important to understand the temporal sediment response of mountain catchments regarding precipitation and run-off. This response is not unique and features intra-annual, annual and multi-year scales components. In this research, we analyse a humid mountain badland area located in the Central Spanish Pyrenees. This typology of badlands is characterized by its non-linearity and non-stationary precipitation and run-off cycles, which ultimately lead to complex sediment dynamics and yields. Based on spectral frequency analysis and wavelet decomposition we were able to determine the dominant time scales of the local hydrological and sediment dynamics. Intra-annual and annual time scales were linked with the climatological characteristics of the catchment site. The multi-year response in the sediment yields reveals the importance of the sediment storage/depletion cycle of the catchment. The frequency and amplitude of precipitation, run-off and sediment yields fluctuations were accurately predicted with the spectral frequency analysis and wavelet decomposition technique used.

Large-Eddy Simulations (LES) are used to investigate the governing processes involved in mass and momentum transfer between the flow in the main channel and symmetrically-distributed lateral bank cavities. In-cavity free-surface velocities, based on laboratory measurements made in an open channel, are used to validate the numerical results. A main vortical structure dominates the in-cavity flow which, despite the shallow nature of the flow, features a remarked three dimensional dynamics. LES results outline the largest velocities through the mouth of the cavity are attained in two thin regions near the bottom-bed and free-surface. In the shear layers established between the main channel and cavities is where the main transfer of turbulent momentum is made between these two flow regions, and the numerical simulations capture well the instantaneous coherent flow structures, e.g. Kelvin-Helmholtz vortices. LES captures a low-frequency standing wave phenomenon even with a rigid-lid approximation adopted at the free-surface boundary. Momentum exchange between cavities and main channel is analysed using the Reynolds Averaged momentum equation in the transverse direction, revealing that the pressure gradient term is the unique contributor to flushing momentum out of the cavities whilst convection and Reynolds normal stress terms are responsible for its entraining into the cavity. Furthermore, sediment deposition areas documented in the laboratory experiments are linked with the simulated hydrodynamics, which correlate with regions of low turbulent kinetic energy and vertical velocities near the bottom of the channel. Overall, the results shed new light into the complex mechanisms involved in mass and momentum transfer; this will aid to design embayments more efficiently regarding sediment transport processes.

An analysis of long-term databases with information on precipitation and discharge records was undertaken to characterize the temporal structure response of four experimental catchments, located in the Central Spanish Pyrenees, with a gradient of land-cover (from a relatively pristine forested catchment, through an abandoned cultivated catchment with progressive plant recolonization, to an afforested catchment and ending with a degraded badlands catchment). Precipitation and discharge records are non-stationary and the wavelet transform methodology was thus applied to perform a temporal scale-by-scale analysis of each catchment response to the hydroclimatic characteristics of the area. This temporal decomposition analysis illustrates how land-use and land-cover legacy control the temporal distribution of flow events occurring at different and non-similar time-scales, thus reflecting the timing, variability and physical mechanisms of water storage/transport in each catchment. Intra-annual and annual time-scales are led by climatological characteristics of the catchment sites (seasonal patterns of mountainous Pyrenees catchments). Multi-year scale is mainly shaped by land-cover and land-use legacy. Badlands catchment, with its large proportion of bare land, shows a discharge response closely synchronized with precipitation patterns for all time-scales. On the contrary, for the forested catchment the global hydrological response is mainly governed by the multi-year time-scale. Afforested catchment and abandoned cultivated catchment, which move towards a pristine forest response, are impacted by the former grazing and agriculture activities and intra-annual temporal variability still play a major role on the global discharge response of the catchment. This suggests that vegetated catchments located in the same region can show hydrological responses at different time-scales to the same climatic input. We argue that differences in land-cover and historical land-use changes are not only valuable to understand the current discharge temporal behaviour, but they will also play a significant role in characterizing the future catchment dynamics due to changing climate conditions., This work was funded by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number 834329-SEDILAND.

Field observations in a wide range of environments have shown that sediment availability is a major control on the suspended sediment observations in streams. Here we examine, via laboratory experiments, how the amount of proximal in-channel fine sediment storage relative to the upstream fine sediment distal supply influences the observations of suspended sediment concentrations in streams. Experiments under idealized conditions in a laboratory flume with different ratios of proximal and distal sediment supplies were conducted under a varying flow regime. In addition, the role of the sediment particle size of the supplied sediment on suspended sediment observations was explored. The combinations of proximal and distal sediment supply result in multiple responses of the channel bed and sediment quantity within the channel bed, and the responses adjust through aggradation and degradation. The signature of sediment concentration observed at the upstream section of the channel, given by the distal supply, differs from the downstream observations of the total conveyed sediment(distal and proximal), as shown by an in-phase analysis of sediment concentration-discharge plots.Furthermore, we show that nonuniform sediment mixtures may result in a change in the direction of the hysteresis observed between sediment concentration and discharge (i.e., from a clockwise hysteresis toa counterclockwise hysteresis). We also demonstrate that the ratio between sediment distal supply and proximal sediment availability modulates the magnitude of the aggradation/degradation processes in the channel reach and thus the joint observations of sediment concentration and discharge.

Lateral cavities are built in the banks of rivers for several purposes: to create harbors, to capture sediment, to keep a central navigable channel (i.e., Casiers de Girardon in the Rhone river) or to promote the formation of aquatic habitats if a limited amount of sediment is captured, providing hydraulic and morphologic diversity (i.e., the case of Japanese Wandos). This work is focused on this latter purpose: promotion of hydraulic and morphologic diversity. In these scenarios, an increase in the flow discharge in the main channel may, however, re-mobilize the deposit of sediment inside these lateral embayments and cause a sudden increase of the sediment concentration and turbidity in the main channel. It is thus of interest to characterize the resistance and resilience of these sedimentary deposits when the main channel is subjected to high flow or flushing events. Laboratory tests were carried out for five different normalized geometries of the cavities installed in the banks of an open channel and for five hydrographs with different levels of unsteadiness. Water depth, sediment deposit mass, sediment concentration and area covered by the settled sediments were recorded throughout each experiment. Although sediment deposits established at equilibrium before the flushing events are different depending on the geometry of the cavities, generally, they are recovered after being flushed by the high flow events. It is shown that the resistance and resilience of the sediment deposits are strongly dependent on the flow field and the mass exchange between the main channel and the cavities. This mass exchange is governed by the geometry of the cavities and the magnitude of the hydrographs applied.

River restoration works often include measures to promote morphological diversity and enhance habitat suitability. One of these measures is the creation of macro-roughness elements, such as lateral cavities and embayments, in the banks of channelized rivers. However, in flows that are heavily charged with fine sediments in suspension, such as glacier-fed streams and very low-gradient reaches of large catchment rivers, these lateral cavities may trap these sediments. Consequently, the morphological changes may be affected, and the functionality of the restoration interventions may be compromised. Herein, we analyse the influence of these macro-roughness elements on the transport of fine sediments in the main channel. Laboratory tests with uniform flow charged with sediments in a channel with banks equipped with large-scale rectangular roughness elements were carried out. The laboratory experiments covered a wide range of rectangular cavity geometrical configurations and shallowness ratios. The influence of key parameters such as flow shallowness, geometric ratios of the cavities and initial sediment concentration was tested. Surface particle image velocimetry, sediment samples and temporal turbidity records were collected during the experiments. The amount of sediments captured by the cavities, the temporal evolution of the concentration of sediments in suspension and the flow hydrodynamics are cross-analysed and discussed. It is shown that the trapping efficiency of the macro-roughness elements is a clear function of the channel geometry and the shallowness of the flow.

Mathematical models used to describe sediment transport are updated to include more physical characteristics resulting in more accurate numerical predictions. Hence, the present work studies the influence of gravity effects in the bed load transport over steep sloping beds. For this purpose the 2D gravity projections on global coordinates have been included not only in the sediment fluxes, which is the classical approach, but also in the water fluxes and in the pressure/friction terms. Additionally, a set of experiments involving steep slopes has been designed and carried out. Comparisons between the numerical and the experimental results are reported. The gravity projections included in the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic models lead to more accurate predictions in two situations: (i) at the initial stages of experiments where the bed slopes angles are higher; and (ii) under large water and solid discharges, where the interaction between the bed and the water is stronger.

Mediterranean mountain forests play a significant role in hydrological regulation. In this study, hydrological dynamics was examined at different temporal scales in a small mountain forest catchment in the Central Spanish Pyrenees (San Salvador), based on a 20-year dataset (1999–2019). Mean annual runoff coefficient is 0.21, and ranged from 0.02 to 0.58. The catchment has a bi-modal hydrological behavior with two hydrological periods: a dry-period between July and December, and a wet-period between January and June. During the study period, only 108 floods were recorded, suggesting a low responsiveness of the catchment, with a high variable response. Spearman correlation analysis and stepwise multivariate regression suggest that the hydrological response in the San Salvador catchment is mainly depending on water table, with antecedent moisture conditions and rainfall depth as secondary factors. Seasonal differences were also observed: during dry season, the response was mainly related to rainfall depth and rainfall intensity; in contrast in wet season, the response was mainly related to antecedent conditions (previous rainfall and base flow). Thus, the already challenging water resources management in the Mediterranean basin is magnified by the key function of forests as natural modulators of water cycle. Consequently, the study of natural forested catchments is needed and long-datasets have to be analysed to understand the role of natural Mediterranean forest in the hydrological dynamics and its evolution and adaptation in a context of Global Change., This work was supported by the MANMOUNT project (PID2019-105983RB-I00, funded by MICINN-FEDER) and by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number 834329-SEDILAND. Dhais Peña-Angulo received a “Juan de la Cierva” postdoctoral contract (FJCI-2017-33652 Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, MEC). The “Geoenvironmental Processes and Global Change” (E02_17R) was financed by the Aragón Government and the European Social Fund.

The artificial replenishment of sediment is used as a method to re-establish sediment continuity downstream of a dam. However, the impact of this technique on the hydraulics conditions, and resulting bed morphology, is yet to be understood. Several numerical tools have been developed during last years for modeling sediment transport and morphology evolution which can be used for this application. These models range from 1D to 3D approaches: the first being over simplistic for the simulation of such a complex geometry; the latter requires often a prohibitive computational effort. However, 2D models are computationally efficient and in these cases may already provide sufficiently accurate predictions of the morphology evolution caused by the sediment replenishment in a river. Here, the 2D shallow water equations in combination with the Exner equation are solved by means of a weak-coupled strategy. The classical friction approach considered for reproducing the bed channel roughness has been modified to take into account the morphological effect of replenishment which provokes a channel bed fining. Computational outcomes are compared with four sets of experimental data obtained from several replenishment configurations studied in the laboratory. The experiments differ in terms of placement volume and configuration. A set of analysis parameters is proposed for the experimental-numerical comparison, with particular attention to the spreading, covered surface and travel distance of placed replenishment grains. The numerical tool is reliable in reproducing the overall tendency shown by the experimental data. The effect of fining roughness is better reproduced with the approach herein proposed. However, it is also highlighted that the sediment clusters found in the experiment are not well numerically reproduced in the regions of the channel with a limited number of sediment grains.

Computational tools may help engineers in the assessment of sediment transport during the decision-making processes. The main requirements are that the numerical results have to be accurate and simulation models must be fast. The present work is based on the 2D shallow water equations in combination with the 2D Exner equation. The resulting numerical model accuracy was already discussed in previous work. Regarding the speed of the computation, the Exner equation slows down the already costly 2D shallow water model as the number of variables to solve is increased and the numerical stability is more restrictive. In order to reduce the computational effort required for simulating realistic scenarios, the authors have exploited the use of Graphics Processing Units in combination with non-trivial optimization procedures. The gain in computing cost obtained with the graphic hardware is compared against single-core (sequential) and multi-core (parallel) CPU implementations in two unsteady cases.

Current computational power allows the modelling of complex time dependent flows. In particular, shallow water flows are frequently simulated to achieve solutions for different problems in the field of civil and environmental engineering. The mesh resolution and related computational cost are primarily associated to the scale of the flow structures to be investigated. Nonetheless, turbulence also plays an important role on computational cost since it participates in the generation, shedding and support of such flow structures. Different mathematical models can be considered to numerically simulate the turbulence of unsteady shallow flows depending on the degree of turbulent scale resolution required. Depending on the adopted approach, the level of accuracy required (i.e. the range of scales that must be resolved with a low diffusive and dispersive error) is different. Such accuracy, namely the dispersive and dissipative characteristic, is directly related with the numerical scheme used to discretize the equations. In finite volume schemes, the range of scales of turbulent motion that a numerical model can accurately resolve strongly depends on the Riemann solver used (via its intrinsic numerical diffusion), apart from the order of accuracy and degrees of freedom of the method. In this work, we aim at the analysis of two well-known Riemann solvers in the framework of the classical shallow water equations (i.e. considering the full convective terms and neglecting dissipation): the ARoe and HLLS solvers. An important difference between the ARoe and HLLS solvers is the numerical diffusion inherent to each of them. This artificial diffusion combined with the mesh resolution determine the cut-off scale resolved by each numerical technique. For this purpose, we assess the suitability of each solver by means of the analysis of the kinetic energy cascade of the numerical solution using a double shear layer configuration. This analysis is combined with the examination of the analytical expression of he approximate solution for a shear wave, provided by the aforementioned solvers. The study herein presented allows to assess whether or not all the relevant turbulent flow structures are resolved and if the phenomenon of interest is thus accurately modeled. The numerical results evidence that a diffusive profile appears at the shear line during the first steps of the simulation, determining the duration of the linear regime prior to the turbulent motion. The strength of this profile, shown to be higher for the HLLS solver, is associated to the numerical diffusion of the solver. The analysis of the energy cascade also agrees with this observation.

Soil erosion has reemerged as an environmental problem associated with climate change that requires the help of simulation tools for forecasting future consequences. This topic becomes even more relevant in Mediterranean catchments due to the highly variable and irregular rainfall regime. Hence, an approach that includes the rainfall/runoff and erosion phenomena is required for quantifying the amount of soil the catchments are transferring to the rivers. As the calibration process of the infiltration and erosion parameters can become cumbersome in terms of iterations to the optimal values to fit experimental data, a Simplified Catchment Model (SCM) is introduced as a first approach. The set of tuning constants that provides the best fit are used as input for re-calibrating the parameters by means of the simulation of the real catchment. The modeling effort here presented opens its application to the analysis of the hydro-sedimentary processes at larger temporal and spatial scales. La erosión de suelos ha vuelto a emerger como un problema medio ambiental asociado con el cambio climático, el cual requiere de herramientas de simulación que ayuden en la predicción de futuras consecuencias. Este problema medio ambiental es incluso más relevante en las cuencas mediterráneas, debido a las precipitaciones variables e irregulares. Por todo ello, se requiere de una herramienta de simulación que incluya la lluvia, escorrentía y erosión de suelos para así determinar cuáles son los aportes sedimentarios de la cuenca al río. Puesto que el proceso de calibración de la cuenca para los parámetros de infiltración y erosión puede ser tedioso debido al alto número de iteraciones requerido hasta alcanzar un resultado satisfactorio, en este trabajo se presenta un modelo de cuenca simplificado (SCM) que acelera dicha calibración. Los parámetros calibrados en la cuenca simplificada son utilizados para guiar de manera efectiva la calibración de la cuenca real. El modelo numérico y la estrategia de calibración aquí presentados constituyen un primer paso para abordar proyectos más ambiciosos en donde investigar los efectos combinados de la hidrología y la erosión de suelos para grandes escalas temporales y espaciales.

Dense granular flows are present in geophysics and in several industrial processes, which has lead to an increasing interest for the knowledge and understanding of the physics which govern their propagation. For this reason, a wide range of laboratory experiments on gravity-driven flows have been carried out during the last two decades. The present work is focused on geomorphological processes and, following previous work, a series of laboratory studies which constitute a further step in mimicking natural phenomena are described and simulated. Three situations are considered with some common properties: a two-dimensional configuration, variable slope of the topography and the presence of obstacles. The setup and measurement technique employed during the development of these experiments are deeply explained in the companion work. The first experiment is based on a single obstacle, the second one is performed against multiple obstacles and the third one studies the influence of a dike on which overtopping occurs. Due to the impact of the flow against the obstacles, fast moving shocks appear, and a variety of secondary waves emerge. In order to delve into the physics of these types of phenomena, a shock-capturing numerical scheme is used to simulate the cases. The suitability of the mathematical models employed in this work has been previously validated. Comparisons between computed and experimental data are presented for the three cases. The computed results show that the numerical tool is able to predict faithfully the overall behavior of this type of complex dense granular flow.

Avalanches, debris flows and other types of gravity-driven granular flows are a common hazard in mountainous regions. These regions often have human settlements in the lower parts of valleys, with human structures dangerously exposed to the destructive effects of these geophysical flows. Therefore a scientific effort has been made to understand, model and simulate geophysical granular flows. In order for computer models and simulations to be of predictive value they need to be validated under controlled, yet nature-like conditions. This work presents an experimental study of granular flow over a simplified mountain slope and valley topography. The experimental facility has a rough bed with very high slope at the upstream end and adverse slope on the downstream end, following a parabolic profile. Obstacles are present in the lower regions. Transient measurements of the moving granular surfaces were taken with a consumer-grade RGB-D sensor, providing transient 2D elevation fields around the obstacles. Three experimental configurations were tested, with semispheres of different diameters and a square dike obstacle. The experimental results are very consistent and repeatable. The quantitative, transient and two-dimensional data for all three experiments constitute excellent benchmarking tests for computational models, such as the one presented in a companion paper. A consumer grade RGB-D sensor is used to measure fast transient granular flow.Three highly transient granular flow experiments with obstacles are presented.The technique allows to acquire 2D transient results from the experiments with ease and low cost.The morphology of highly transient and local flow features such as shocks can be detailedly measured.

Numerical modeling of bed-load transport in shallow flows, particularly oriented toward environmental flows, is an active field of research. Nevertheless, other possible applications exist. In particular, bed-load transport phenomena are relevant in urban drainage systems, including sewers. However, few applications of coupled two-dimensional (2D) shallow-water and bed-load transport models can be found, and their transfer from environmental applications-usually river and floodplain-into sewer applications requires some adaptation. Unlike to river systems, where there is a thick layer of sediment that constitutes a movable riverbed, sewer systems have thin layers of sediment that need to be removed, thus exposing a rigid, nonerodible surface. This problem requires careful numerical treatment to avoid generating errors and instability in the simulation. This paper deals with a numerical approach to tackle this issue in an efficient way that allows large-scale studies to be performed and provides empirical evidence that the proposed approach is accurate and applicable for sewage and channel-flushing problems. (C) 2017 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Recent advances in the simulation of free surface flows over mobile bed have shown that accurate and stable results in realistic problems can be provided if an appropriate coupling between the shallow water equations (SWE) and the Exner equation is performed. This coupling can be done if using a suitable Jacobian matrix. As a result, faithful numerical predictions are available for a wide range of flow conditions and empirical bed load discharge formulations, allowing to investigate the best option in each case study, which is mandatory in these type of environmental problems. When coupling the equations, the SWE are considered but including an extra conservation law for the sediment dynamics. In this way the computational cost may become unrealistic in situations where the application of the SWE over rigid bed can be used involving large time and space scales without giving up to the adequate level of mesh refinement. Therefore, for restoring the numerical efficiency, the coupling technique is simplified, not decreasing the number of waves involved in the Riemann problem but simplifying their definitions. The effects of the approximations made are tested against experimental data which include transient problems over erodible bed. The simplified model is formulated under a general framework able to insert any desirable discharge solid load formula.

Intense transient shallow flows over erodible bed imply the appearance of a changing horizontal density attributable to the presence of sediment particles in the water layer. The lack of consideration of the variability of the bulking density of the mixture is not admissible when modeling severe types of erosional flow such as the release of a dam break wave over a sedimentary bottom. Such events can lead to significant changes in the wave hydrodynamics, since the inertia of the flow can be larger and consequently its erosion/deposition capacity can be altered. From a numerical point of view a new complex erosion/deposition source term appears. For the integration of these source terms two strategies have been explored in this work: upwind and pointwise. Hence, this work is focused on the development and validation of a novel numerical scheme based on an approximate augmented Riemann solver, where the erosion/deposition rates play an important role in the variation of mixture density. Several anal...

In order to study the morphological evolution of river beds composed of heterogeneous material, the interaction among the different grain sizes must be taken into account. In this paper, these equations are combined with the two-dimensional shallow water equations to describe the flow field. The resulting system of equations can be solved in two ways: (i) in a coupled way, solving flow and sediment equations simultaneously at a given time-step or (ii) in an uncoupled manner by first solving the flow field and using the magnitudes obtained at each time-step to update the channel morphology (bed and surface composition). The coupled strategy is preferable when dealing with strong and quick interactions between the flow field, the bed evolution and the different particle sizes present on the bed surface. A number of numerical difficulties arise from solving the fully coupled system of equations. These problems are reduced by means of a weakly-coupled strategy to numerically estimate the wave celerities containing the information of the bed and the grain sizes present on the bed. Hence, a two-dimensional numerical scheme able to simulate in a self-stable way the unsteady morphological evolution of channels formed by cohesionless grain size mixtures is presented. The coupling technique is simplified without decreasing the number of waves involved in the numerical scheme but by simplifying their definitions. The numerical results are satisfactorily tested with synthetic cases and against experimental data. The participation of C. Ferrer-Boix in this research was made possible in part by support from the Spanish Ministry of Education, programme “Campus de Excelencia Internacional CEI Iberus”. Additionally, this work was partially supported and funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology under research project CGL2011-28590 and by Diputación General de Aragón, DGA, through FEDER funds.

This paper reports a high-resolution, non-intrusive, low-cost technique to measure volumes of erosion and deposition of fine sediments. The combination of two techniques, photography and laser scanning, gives the advantage of simultaneous quantitative estimation of erosion and deposition and visualization of deposition patterns. The use of this technique is tested for recording the geomorphological changes induced by the passage of a gravity current over a erodible bed. Good results are obtained, indicating that the combination of both methods can be considered for a range of multi-purpose applications in which the measurement of erosion and deposition is required. Finally, results for the deposition patterns, which are created by the highly turbulent flow field of the gravity currents, are discussed, showing the potential of these techniques for studying anisotropic bed structures.

Local widening in a channelized river is a common practice in restoration projects. The lateral embayments built for this purpose in the river banks are partially filled up by fine sediments. This allows the formation of aquatic habitats with hydraulic and morphologic diversity. However, the design of these lateral cavities may be compromised by the fluctuations in the water discharge. To address this problem, systematic experimental investigations have been carried out with five different fluctuating hydrograph scenarios. Water depth, sediment concentration and area covered by the settled sediments are analysed in each experiment. The process of sedimentation in the lateral embayments proved to be, in general, resilient to flow fluctuations. However, there were several differences observed during the high flow phase fluctuation phase depending on the geometric configuration of the embayments and the applied hydrograph: (i) a higher peak in discharge means that more sediments are resuspended and a complete remobilization of the in-cavity sediment deposits is possible. (ii) Long and short cavities are more resilient to high flow events than cavities with an intermediate length.

Overbank sedimentation is predominantly due to fine sediments transported under suspension that become trapped and settle in floodplains when high-flow conditions occur in rivers. In a compound channel, the processes of exchanging water and fine sediments between the main channel and floodplains regulate the geomorphological evolution and are crucial for the maintenance of the ecosystem functions of the floodplains. These hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes depend on variables such as the flow-depth ratio between the water depth in the main channel and the water depth in the floodplain, the width ratio between the width of the main channel and the width of the floodplain, and the floodplain land cover characterized by the type of roughness. This paper examines, by means of laboratory experiments, how these variables are interlinked and how the deposition of sediments in the compound channel is jointly determined by them. The combination of these compound channel characteristics modulates the production of vertically axised large turbulent vortical structures in the mixing interface. Such vortical structures determine the water mass exchange between the main channel and the floodplain, conditioning in turn the transport of sediment particles conveyed in the water, and, therefore, the resulting overbank sedimentation. The existence and pattern of sedimentation are conditioned by both the hydrodynamic variables (the flow-depth ratio and the width ratio) and the floodplain land cover simulated in terms of smooth walls, meadow-type roughness, sparse-wood-type roughness, and dense-wood-type roughness.

Large Eddy simulations of lock-exchange gravity currents propagating over a mobile reach are presented. The numerical setting allows to investigate the sediment pick up induced by the currents and to study the underlying mechanisms leading to sediment entrainment for different Grashof numbers and grain sizes. First, the velocity field and the bed shear-stress distribution are investigated, along with turbulent structures formed in the flow, before the current reaches the mobile bed. Then, during the propagation of the current above the erodible section of the bed the contour plots of the entrained material are presented as well as the time evolution of the areas covered by the current and by the sediment at this section. The numerical outcomes are compared with experimental data showing a very good agreement. Overall, the study confirms that sediment pick up is prevalent at the head of the current where the strongest turbulence occurs. Further, above the mobile reach of the bed, settling process seems to be of minor importance, with the entrained material being advected downstream by the current. Additionally, the study shows that, although shear stress is the main mechanism that sets particles in motion, turbulent bursts as well as vertical velocity fluctuations are also necessary to counteract the falling velocity of the particles and maintain them into suspension. Finally, the analysis of the stability conditions of the current shows that, from one side, sediment concentration gives a negligible contribution to the stability of the front of the current and from the other side, the stability conditions provided by the current do not allow sediments to move into the ambient fluid.

Dams trap sediments in the upstream reservoir, thus the continuity in sediment transport along the river is interrupted. Several negative aspects related to the lack of sediment supply were observed downstream many dams and the artificial replenishment of sediment was applied as a method to restore natural morphological conditions. The replenishment technique may be seen as a pulse of sediments added to the channel. Once the pulse-like volume of sediments is added into the reach, it is seen like an alteration of the channel geometry producing cross section narrowing and flow acceleration lengthwise the river. The river geometry modification together with the water flow allow erosion and transportation of the replenished material. In this work, the response of the flow to the material added in the channel is studied by means of the 2D shallow water equations model in combination with the Exner equation for the sediment continuity equation. Computational outcomes are compared with experimental data obtained from several replenishment configurations studied in the laboratory. It is observed how the bed fining provokes a larger spread of the material without aggradation within the armored channel.

A long-term database with information on precipitation, discharge and sediment yield dynamics was analyzed to characterize the temporal structure response of a catchment in a humid mountain badland area. Due to the non-linearity and non-stationary nature of the data, a combination of frequency analysis and wavelet reconstruction techniques were initially used to determine the dominant time scales of the precipitation, discharge and sediment yield. Within the full spectrum of time scales, the spectral frequency analysis could distinguish the dominant ones governing the overall trend of the time-series. Furthermore, the temporal multiresolution wavelet technique enabled accurate de-noising of the hydrometric and sediment time-series, by filtering out the high frequency intermittent processes superimposed on the main signal. Geomorphological metrics were subsequently applied to the filtered data and link to the temporal structure of the catchment response. The combined frequency-geomorphological analysis provides a physical explanation of the complete temporal structure of the catchment response to precipitation. This analysis features components from intra-annual, annual and multi-year scales. Intra-annual and annual time scales are led by climatological characteristics of the catchment site (seasonal rainfall patterns of a mountain Pyrenean catchment). The multi-year response related to the sediment yield reveals the importance of the sediment storage/depletion cycle in the catchment: although the main driver of the sediment yield is the discharge, weathering processes and sediment storage are also major control factors. Therefore, correct management of the catchment requires the combined multi-temporal response of water and sediment fluxes to be controlled. The temporal spectral analysis herein outlined provides a detailed analysis of the long-term temporal structure of databases and can be accepted as an adequate tool for catchment management in terms of flood forecasting or reservoir operation., This work was funded by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement, number 834329-SEDILAND. The data used have been collected during 15 years at IPE-CSIC thanks to regional, national and European funding.

A common approach used to mitigate riverbank erosion and maintain watercourse alignments has been through the application of riprap or larger, more stable particles to channel boundaries along reaches of interest. However, very often, these large particles become dislodged from their intended locations (failed erosion measures), becoming part of the bed material composition. In natural systems, large immobile sediments or boulders can also be found, which are often sourced from glacial erratics or colluvial inputs with different spacing and arrangements among them. In lower gradient gravel-bed channels, the impacts that large clasts may impart on river morphologies are uncertain and are studied in this paper. This paper utilizes laboratory experiments to evaluate the effects that varying spacing of large immobile particles in a gravel-bed channel have on sediment transport and bed morphology. The laboratory experiments consist of a series of test cases with a varying spacing of large immobile particles and one base case with no large immobile particles present. In each case, the flume bed was composed of a poorly sorted gravel mixture with a bimodal distribution of sand and gravel meant to be representative of a natural gravel-bed channel. The results of the test cases demonstrated that at a low spacing of large immobile particles, the transported material and the bed material both became coarser. At a medium spacing of large immobile particles, the bed material size and erosion reached a maximum, and the coarser bed material was transported at approximately the same rate as the finer material. Finally, at a high spacing of large immobile particles, the size of the transported material and bed material sizes were similar to that of the base case, and the sediment transport also had the strongest clockwise hysteresis trend, which ultimately led to a net erosion of the gravel-bed channel., This projectwas supported by funding from an NSERC IPS (McKie), by the H2020-MSCA-IF-2018 programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union under REA grant agreement number 834329-SEDILAND (Juez) and by Water Regime Investigations and Simulations Ltd., JTB Environmental Systems Inc. and R&M Construction (Plumb).