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Species descriptions of most alcyonacean octocorals rely heavily on the morphology of sclerites, the calcium carbonate spicules embedded in the soft tissue. Sclerites provide taxonomic characters for species delineation but require qualitative descriptions, which introduce ambiguities in recognizing morphological features. Elliptical Fourier analysis of the outline of sclerites was used to quantify the morphology of eight species of gorgoniid octocoral in the genus Pseudopterogorgia. Sclerites from one to seven colonies of each species were compared. Scaphoids and spindles were examined separately; rods and octoradiates were excluded from the analyses because of their morphologic similarity across all species. Discriminant analysis of elliptical Fourier descriptors (EFDs) was used to determine whether the elliptical Fourier analysis could be used to identify the specimens. Sclerites were highly variable even within a single colony. Correct species assignments of individual sclerites were greater than 50% for both scaphoids and spindles. Species assignments based on averages of the EFDs for each colony approached 90%. Elliptical Fourier analysis quantifies morphological differences between species and measures colony variance in sclerite size and shape among colonies and species. Phylogenetic analysis based on EFDs did not capture monophyletic groups. The quantification of complex shapes such as sclerites provides an important tool in alpha taxonomy but may be less useful in phylogenetic analyses.

Bone morphogenetic protein-3 (BMP) has been identified as a negative regulator in the skeleton as mice lacking BMP3 have increased bone mass. To further understand how BMP3 mediates bone formation, we created transgenic mice overexpressing BMP3 using the type I collagen promoter. BMP3 transgenic mice displayed spontaneous rib fractures that were first detected at E17.0. The fractures were due to defects in differentiation of the periosteum and late hypertrophic chondrocytes resulting in thinner cortical bone with decreased mineralization. As BMP3 modulates BMP and activin signaling through ActRIIB, we examined the ribs of ActRIIB receptor knockout mice and found they had defects in late chondrogenesis and mineralization similar to BMP3 transgenic mice. These data suggest that BMP3 exerts its effects in the skeleton by altering signaling through ActRIIB in chondrocytes and the periosteum, and this results in defects in bone collar formation and late hypertrophic chondrocyte maturation leading to decreased mineralization and less bone., (2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Smad proteins are the cellular mediators of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily signals. Herein, we describe the isolation of a fourth Smad gene from the helminth Schistosoma mansoni, a receptor-regulated Smad (R-Smad) gene termed SmSmad1B. The SmSmad1B protein is composed of 380 amino acids, and contains conserved MH1 and MH2 domains separated by a short 42 amino acid linker region. The SmSmad1B gene (> 10.7 kb) is composed of five exons separated by four introns. On the basis of phylogenetic analysis, SmSmad1B demonstrates homology to Smad proteins involved in the bone morphogenetic protein pathway. SmSmad1B transcript is expressed in all stages of schistosome development, and exhibits the highest expression level in the cercariae stage. By immunolocalization experiments, the SmSmad1B protein was detected in the cells of the parenchyma of adult schistosomes as well as in female reproductive tissues. Yeast two-hybrid experiments revealed an interaction between SmSmad1B and the common Smad, SmSmad4. As determined by yeast three-hybrid assays and pull-down assays, the presence of the wild-type or mutated SmTbetaRI receptor resulted in a decreased interaction between SmSmad1B and SmSmad4. These results suggest the presence of a nonfunctional interaction between SmSmad1B and SmTbetaRI that does not give rise to the phosphorylation and the release of SmSmad1B to form a heterodimer with SmSmad4. SmSmad1B, as well as the schistosome bone morphogenetic protein-related Smad SmSmad1 and the transforming growth factor-beta-related SmSmad2, interacted with the schistosome coactivator proteins SmGCN5 and SmCBP1 in pull-down assays. In all, these data suggest the involvement of SmSmad1B in critical biological processes such as schistosome reproductive development.