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The genus Penares Gray 1867 (Tetractinellida Marshall; Astrophorina Sollas; Geodiidae Gray) is reviewed from new and existing New Zealand collections, with 75 specimens examined and registered. The only species known from New Zealand prior to this study, P. tylotaster Dendy 1924, is re-examined and re-described from the holotype, using new scanning electron microscope images. Nine new species are described from New Zealand’s Exclusive Economic Zone: P. mollis sp. nov., P. aureus sp. nov., P. vermiculatus sp. nov., P. kermadecensis sp. nov., P. turmericolor, sp. nov., P. deformis sp. nov., P. okokewae sp. nov., P. orbis sp. nov., and P. astronavis sp. nov. A specimen of P. schulzei (Dendy 1905), first described from Sri Lanka and subsequently recorded from New Caledonia, was also found in New Zealand, extending the range of this species. This study brings the total New Zealand Penares fauna to 11 species, making a significant contribution to the now, global total of 39 species. All previously described Penares species are reviewed based on their published descriptions, and species names have been corrected to their masculine form. Based on the published description of P. obtusus Lendenfeld 1907, it is recommended that this species be reassigned to the genus Stelletta Schmidt 1862.

An understanding of past environmental conditions and the processes that govern change is essential in order to predict future climate changes. Historical environmental conditions can be reconstructed based on the composition of mineral skeletons of marine organisms. Some marine sponges, such as the hypercalcified (‘sclerosponge’) sponges, the desma-bearing (‘lithistid’) sponges and hexactinellid (glass) sponges, are estimated to live for hundreds to thousands of years. These sponges accrete elements in isotopic equilibrium with seawater, making them good potential Paleoclimate indicators. We review the literature on the use of sponges as proxies for climate change. The accuracy of sponge proxy data is highly dependent on the accuracy of dating methods, and multiple samples per specimen are recommended to confirm the reproducibility of results. δ13Carbon values in shallow-water hypercalcified sponges appear to be a good proxy for atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, with good correlations between δ13carbon measurements from sponge skeletons and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Results using δ18oxygen values and strontium/calcium ratios as proxies for temperature are mixed, and results appear to be influenced by sponge species and region. δ30Silicon values in siliceous sponge spicules from dated sediment cores appear to be a good proxy for long-term changes in ocean silicon concentrations. Quantification of zinc/silicon and germanium/silicon ratios in sponges also show potential as proxies for ocean silicon concentrations, but more research is needed in this area. In summary, research on a number of sponge proxies has shown promising results for use as Paleoclimate indicators. Application of these proxies generally produces climatic reconstructions that are in agreement with published results from other proxies. However, much more research is needed to further develop sponge proxies and to gain a better understanding of the processes that control both the incorporation of the proxy within the sponge and its concentration in the surrounding water.

Extensive new collections of latrunculid sponges from British Columbia, the Aleutian Islands, and the Gulf of Alaska, have extended the distributions of known species Latrunculia oparinae SamaaiKrasokhin, 2002, from the Russian Sea of Okhotsk, L. velera Lehnert et al., 2006, from the Aleutian Islands, and L. austini Samaai et al., 2006, from British Columbia. New material has facilitated detailed re-descriptions of these species and in situ images have improved our understanding of their living morphology and ecology. Several new species of Latrunculia were discovered within these collections: sympatric species Latrunculia hamanni sp. nov. and L. oparinae are described here and differentiated from each other by various field characteristics, and L. lincfreesei sp. nov. is described from the Gulf of Alaska. In terms of their higher systematics, L. austini and L. hamanni sp. nov. are recognisable within the subgenus Latrunculia du Bocage, 1869, and L. lincfreesei sp. nov. in subgenus Biannulata Samaai et al., 2006. A third subgenus, Uniannulata subgen. nov., is proposed for L. oparinae, L. velera and several fossil species in southern New Zealand and Western Australian Eocene fossiliferous sediments. In all of these species the subsidiary whorl, apical whorl, and apex of the anisodiscorhabd are fused. Living species of Uniannulata subgen. nov. are thus far restricted to the North Pacific Ocean. A new genus, Bomba gen. nov., is proposed for a rare latrunculid species, Bomba endeavourensis gen. et sp. nov., discovered in deep waters on British Columbia's Endeavour Ridge. Finally, Latrunclava gen. nov. is proposed for species with long, sceptre-like anisoconicorhabds in addition to the typical, smaller anisodiscorhabds; Latrunclava imago gen. et sp. nov. is described from the central Aleutian Islands.

Extensive new collections of latrunculid sponges from British Columbia, the Aleutian Islands, and the Gulf of Alaska, have extended the distributions of known species Latrunculia oparinae Samaai & Krasokhin, 2002, from the Russian Sea of Okhotsk, L. velera Lehnert et al., 2006, from the Aleutian Islands, and L. austini Samaai et al., 2006, from British Columbia. New material has facilitated detailed re-descriptions of these species and in situ images have improved our understanding of their living morphology and ecology. Several new species of Latrunculia were discovered within these collections: sympatric species Latrunculia hamanni sp. nov. and L. oparinae are described here and differentiated from each other by various field characteristics, and L. lincfreesei sp. nov. is described from the Gulf of Alaska. In terms of their higher systematics, L. austini and L. hamanni sp. nov. are recognisable within the subgenus Latrunculia du Bocage, 1869, and L. lincfreesei sp. nov. in subgenus Biannulata Samaai et al., 2006. A third subgenus, Uniannulata subgen. nov., is proposed for L. oparinae, L. velera and several fossil species in southern New Zealand and Western Australian Eocene fossiliferous sediments. In all of these species the subsidiary whorl, apical whorl, and apex of the anisodiscorhabd are fused. Living species of Uniannulata subgen. nov. are thus far restricted to the North Pacific Ocean. A new genus, Bomba gen. nov., is proposed for a rare latrunculid species, Bomba endeavourensis gen. et sp. nov., discovered in deep waters on British Columbia's Endeavour Ridge. Finally, Latrunclava gen. nov. is proposed for species with long, sceptre-like anisoconicorhabds in addition to the typical, smaller anisodiscorhabds; Latrunclava imago gen. et sp. nov. is described from the central Aleutian Islands.

New material collected from the Western Pacific has necessitated a revision of family Podospongiidae and the establishment of two new genera, Neopodospongia gen. nov. and Diplopodospongia gen. nov. Neopodospongia gen. nov. was established for a group of sponges characterised by a leathery ectosome, strongyloxeas, aciculospinorhabds, and sigmoidal protospinorhabds. Diplopodospongia gen. nov., was established for a group of thinly encrusting deep-water sponges that have anisoxeas and dumbbell-shaped spinorhabds. Eight new species of Podospongiidae are described here: two species of Podospongia du Bocage, 1869; P. virga sp. nov., from northern New Zealand and P. colini sp. nov., from Indonesia, three species of Neopodospongia from New Zealand; N. pagei gen. nov. sp. nov., N. bergquistae gen. nov. sp. nov., and N. exilis gen. nov. sp. nov., and three species of Diplopodospongia; D. rara gen. nov. sp. nov. and D. teliformis gen. nov. sp. nov. from New Zealand, and D. macquariensis gen. nov. sp. nov. from the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone surrounding Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean. In addition, the Irish encrusting sponge P. normani (Stephens 1915) has been reassigned to Neopodospongia gen. nov. An updated identification key to Podospongiidae genera is included.

Absorption cross sections have been measured for the 2(0)(2)4(0)(3) and 2(0)(3)4(0)(1) vibrational bands of the [formula: see text] electronic transition of formaldehyde in the wavelength range 313-320 nm. Accurate values are of considerable importance for atmospheric monitoring and to understand the photochemistry of this compound. The 0.10 cm(-1) FWHM wavenumber resolution of the experiments is determined by the bandwidth of the ultraviolet laser used, and is a factor of 10 or more higher than any previously reported data. The absorption cross section data are thus obtained at a spectrometer resolution close to the Doppler broadening limit at 294 K of 0.07 cm(-1) FWHM, for isolated rotational lines, but lifetime broadening effects contribute a further approximately 0.5 cm(-1) of width. Our spectral resolution is thus higher than required to resolve the sharpest spectral features and, as a consequence, the cross sections peak at greater values than previous studies of these structured rovibronic bands conducted at much lower spectrometer resolutions. Previous data can be quantitatively reproduced by convolution of the newly obtained spectra with lower-resolution instrument functions. Pressure broadening of regions of the spectra in the presence of up to 500 Torr of N2 is examined and the effects on peak absorption cross sections are very small. The influence of reduced temperature on the spectrum is also explored through experimental measurements and spectral simulations.

Absolute quantum yields for the radical (H + HCO) channel of HCHO photolysis, Phi(HCO), have been measured for the tropospherically relevant range of wavelengths (lambda) between 300 and 330 nm. The HCO photoproduct was directly detected by using a custom-built, combined ultra-violet (UV) absorption and cavity ring down (CRD) detection spectrometer. This instrument was previously employed for high-resolution (spectral resolution approximately 0.0035 nm) measurements of absorption cross-sections of HCHO, sigma(HCHO)(lambda), and relative HCO quantum yields. Absolute Phi(HCO) values were measured at seven wavelengths, lambda = 303.70, 305.13, 308.87, 314.31, 320.67, 325.59, and 329.51 nm, using an independent calibration technique based on the simultaneous UV photolysis of HCHO and Cl(2). These Phi(HCO) measurements display greater variability as a function of wavelength than the current NASA-JPL recommendations for Phi(HCO). The absolute Phi(HCO)(lambda) determinations and previously measured sigma(HCHO)(lambda) were used to scale an extensive set of relative HCO yield measurements. The outcome of this procedure is a full suite of data for the product of the absolute radical quantum yield and HCHO absorption cross-section, Phi(HCO)(lambda)sigma(HCHO)(lambda), at wavelengths from 302.6 to 331.0 nm with a wavelength resolution of 0.005 nm. This product of photochemical parameters is combined with high-resolution solar photon flux data to calculate the integrated photolysis rate of HCHO to the radical (H + HCO) channel, J(HCO). Comparison with the latest NASA-JPL recommendations, reported at 1 nm wavelength resolution, suggests an increased J(HCO) of 25% at 0 degrees solar zenith angle (SZA) increasing to 33% at high SZA (80 degrees). The differences in the calculated photolysis rate compared with the current HCHO data arise, in part, from the higher wavelength resolution of the current data set and highlight the importance of using high-resolution spectroscopic techniques to achieve a complete and accurate picture of HCHO photodissociation processes. All experimental Phi(HCO)(lambda)sigma(HCHO)(lambda) data are available for the wavelength range 302.6-331.0 nm (at 294 and 245 K and under 200 Torr of N(2) bath gas) as Supporting Information with wavelength resolutions of 0.005, 0.1, and 1.0 nm. Equivalent data sets of Phi(H(2)+CO)(lambda)sigma(HCHO)(lambda) for the molecular (H(2) + CO) photofragmentation channel, produced using the measured Phi(HCO)(lambda) sigma(HCHO)(tau) values, are also provided at 0.1 and 1.0 nm resolution.

Absorption cross sections for the A1A2-X1A1 electronic transition of formaldehyde have been measured by ultraviolet (UV) laser absorption spectroscopy in the tropospherically significant wavelength range 300-340 nm, over which HCHO is photochemically active. Absorption cross sections are reported at two temperatures, 294 and 245 K and at a spectral resolution of 0.0035 nm (0.35 cm-1). At this resolution, greater peak absorption cross sections are obtained for many of the sharp spectral features than were previously reported. To simulate atmospheric conditions in the troposphere, the effects of adding a pressure of nitrogen of up to 500 Torr and of reduced sample temperature were investigated. The overall magnitudes of peak absorption cross sections are largely unaffected by the added pressure of nitrogen, but a modest degree of pressure broadening (0.2-0.3 cm-1 atm-1) is evident in the line shapes. Computer simulations of spectra have been optimized by comparison with wavelength-dependent formaldehyde absorption cross sections for each major vibronic band in the chosen wavelength range. Experimental and computer simulated spectra at 294 and 245 K are compared to test the reliability of the computer simulations for quantification of the effects of temperature on absorption cross sections. All experimental absorption cross section data and tables of input parameters for spectral simulations are available as Supporting Information.

We report new results on the absorption cross sections and photochemical quantum yields for radical (H + HCO) production from formaldehyde in the wavelength interval from 308-320 nm, obtained at resolutions of better than 0.1 nm. The absorption cross sections, measured at resolutions close to the limit for Doppler broadening of HCHO, show rotationally resolved fine structure, with maximum values higher than those obtained in previous, lower resolution, studies. In this wavelength region, absorption cross sections peak at 2.3 x 10(-19) cm2 molecule(-1), but band-integrated values are in excellent accord with previous measurements. HCO absorption coefficients, measured by cavity ring-down spectroscopy following UV photolysis of HCHO at wavelengths across the 2(0)(1)5(0)(1), 2(0)(2)4(0)(3) and 2(0)(3)4(0)(1) bands of the A1A2-X1A1 transition, generally mimic the parent absorption band profiles. Division of these absorption coefficients by the high resolution parent absorption cross sections gives relative quantum yields for the H + HCO radical product channel that can be put on an absolute scale using single-wavelength literature values. These quantum yields are observed to show some variation with parent excitation wavelength (and thus with excited vibronic level). Addition of 200 Torr of N2 increases the HCO quantum yields.

New collections of New Zealand ancorinid sponges with sanidasters, regular and sanidaster-like microrhabds, andamphiaster-like microscleres, has prompted us to review the integrity of ancorinid genera Ancorina Schmidt, Ecionemia Bowerbank, and Stryphnus Sollas (Demospongiae, Astrophorida, Ancorinidae). The varietal name in Ancorina progressa (von Lendenfeld 1907) var. diplococcus Dendy, 1924 has been elevated to full species status, and A. stalagmoides (Dendy,1924) has been redescribed. Two new species, A. bellae sp. nov., from the Three Kings Islands, and A. globosa sp. nov., from Campbell Rise, have been described. Two New Zealand species previously assigned to Ancorina by Dendy (1924)have been transferred to Ecionemia: E. alata (Dendy 1924) and E. novaezelandiae (Dendy 1924). The genus Stryphnus isrecorded for the first time in New Zealand waters, and 6 new species are described here; S. poculum sp. nov., S. levis sp. nov., S. novaezealandiae sp. nov., S. spelunca sp. nov., and S. atypicus sp. nov. Specimens identified as Asteropus simplex (Carter 1879) by Dendy (1924) and Bergquist (1968), a genus without triaenes, have been transferred to Stryphnus and renamed as S. ariena sp. nov., as all specimens contained rare triaenes.