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Nile tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings (average weight and length: 20.20 ± 0.20 g, 10 ±0.25 cm)cultivated at reusing water from systems with biofloc technology (BFT) under three treatments: T1: Control, T2: tilapia cultured in reused water biofloc (RW) with adding carbohydrate and T3: tilapia cultured in reused water biofloc (RW) without adding carbohydrate. Nine rectangular tanks (66 x 47 x 44 cm, 75L) were used with stocking densities (400 Fish/m3) for 60 days to investigate fish growth performance, feed utilization, body composition, survival, water quality and also economic evaluation was done. Fish were fed a commercial diet containing 30% crude protein. Growth performance of tilapia was recorded biweekly. Water temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH, were recorded daily, while NO2–, NO3–N; total hardness, carbonate hardness and total suspended solids were recorded biweekly. The body composition of the whole fish was determined at the end of the experiment. Results showed that the best water quality parameters, finial body weight, weight gain, daily weight gain, specific growth rate, final biomass, net yield, PER, FCR, FE, feed intake and economic evaluation were significantly(P 0.05). The present study recommended rearing Nile tilapia in reusing water from systems with biofloc technology (BFT) without adding carbon source for best growth performance and prolonged the useful life, quality of water and reduced overall water consumption.

Ovaj rad sastoji se od istraživačkog i metodičkog dijela. U istraživačkom dijelu istražen je proces spontanog taloženja kalcijeva karbonata u prisustvu poli-L-asparaginske kiseline kao modelnog taložnog sustava za istraživanja biomineralizacije u morskim organizmima. Napredovanje procesa taloženja praćeno je potenciometrijski, a talozi karakterizirani infracrvenom spektroskopijom i pretražnom elektronskom mikroskopijom. Svi relevantni početni parametri taložnog sustava (prezasićenost, omjer aktiviteta kalcijevih i karbonatnih iona, temperatura, ionska jakost) bili su konstantni, a promatrani su utjecaji početnog pH (pH0) u rasponu od 8,5 do 10,5 te koncentracije poli-L-asparaginske kiseline. Proces taloženja kalcijeva karbonata je inhibiran u cijelom ispitivanom području pH0 vrijednosti zbog djelovanja poli-L-asparaginske kiseline, a efekt je izraženiji u sinergiji s Mg2+ ionima. U metodičkom dijelu rada pod naslovom Kemija u kapljici tvrde vode načinjen je pregled i kritički osvrt udžbeničke i stručne literature na zadanu temu. Opisana je nastavna jedinica za 90- minutni nastavni sat za učenike četvrtog razreda gimnazije te su predloženi radni listić i uputa za nastavnike temeljena na učenju otkrivanjem. This Diploma thesis consist of two parts: the research part and the methodological part. The research part investigates the process of spontaneous precipitation of calcium carbonate in the presence of poly-L-aspartic acid as a model precipitation system for biomineralization research in marine organisms. The progress of the precipitation process was monitored potentiometrically and the precipitate were characterized by infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. All relevant initial parameters of the precipitation system (supersaturation, calcium and carbonate ion activity ratio, temperature, ionic strength) were constant and the influence of the initial pH (pH0) in the range of 8,5 to 10,5 and the concentration of poly-L-aspartic acid were investigated. The process of calcium carbonate precipitation is inhibited in the whole examined range of pH0 values due to the influence of poly-L-aspartic acid, and the effect is more pronounced in synergy with Mg2+ ions. In the methodological part of the Thesis entitled Chemistry in a drop of hard water, critical review of textbooks and professional literature was made. The class for a 90-minute lesson for fourth-grade high school students is described while worksheets and instructions based on discovery learning are proposed to teachers as well.

The present study region comprises granite and granite gneisses aquifer system constituted by Precambrian rocks. Groundwater is the primary source for drinking and other domestic purposes. Many developing regions in the world suffer from lack of safe drinking water. A rural part of Wanaparthy District in Telangana State, India, is one of them. For this reason, the groundwater samples collected from the study region were analyzed for pH, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3−, Cl−, SO42−, NO3− and F− and evaluated groundwater quality criteria, using ionic spatial distribution (ISD), entropy water quality index (EWQI) and principal component analysis (PCA). The ISD maps show that some locations are not suitable for drinking purpose due to exceeding concentrations of TDS, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3−, Cl−, NO3−and F−, compared to those with national drinking water quality standards. According to the EWQI, about 3%, 47%, 43% and 7% of the total area come under the excellent, good, medium and extremely poor water quality types for drinking purpose, respectively. Chadha’s diagram classified the area as carbonate hardness (63%), non-carbonate alkali (17%), carbonates alkali (13%) and non-carbonate hardness (7%) zones. The binary diagrams (Na+ + K+ vs TC, Na+ vs Ca2+ and HCO3− vs TC) indicate that the quality of groundwater is controlled by influences of water–rock interactions, mineral weathering and dissolution, ion exchange and evaporation as well as the impact of anthropogenic sources. The PCA transferred the chemical variables into three principal components accounts for about 81% of the total variance. The high positive loadings of PC1 (Cl−, TDS, SO42−, Na+, NO3−, Mg2+ and HCO3−) stand for processes of silicate weathering and dissolution, ion exchange and evaporation, and the influence of domestic waste waters, irrigation return flows and chemical fertilizers on the groundwater system, the PC2 (F− and pH) signifies the alkaline nature of groundwater, which causes fluorosis, and the PC3 (K+) is a result of potassium fertilizers. The study helps to take remediate measures at a specific site and hence suggests the treatment of water before its drinking and also the recharge of the aquifer artificially to improve the groundwater quality.

This investigation explores the efficacy of employing ultrasonic cavitation and coupling it with advanced oxidation processes (hydrogen peroxide and Fenton’s reagent) for reducing the levels of total ammonia nitrogen in fish pond water containing Tilapia fishes. Ultrasonic cavitation is a phenomenon where the formation, growth and collapse of vaporous bubbles occur in a liquid medium producing highly reactive free radicals. Ultrasonic probe system (20 kHz with 750 W and 1000 W) was used to induce cavitation. Besides, to intensify the process, ultrasonic cavitation was coupled with hydrogen peroxide and Fenton’s reagent. Using SERA colour indicator test kits, the levels of ammonium, nitrite and carbonate hardness were measured. The results obtained from this study clearly show that the advanced oxidation processes are more efficient in reducing the ammonium and nitrite levels in fish pond water than using ultrasound alone. The pH and carbonate hardness levels were not affected significantly by ultrasonic cavitation. The optimal treatment time and ultrasound power to treat the water samples were also established. Energy efficiency and cost analysis of this treatment have also been presented, indicating that ultrasonic cavitation coupled with hydrogen peroxide appears to be a promising technique for reducing total ammonia nitrogen levels in the fish pond water.

Spring water is a reliable source of potable water to many communities and habitants in western Himalayan region of India. The present study evaluates the hydrochemical nature of spring water using various drinking parameters and agricultural indices in upper Beas basin of Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. Fifty springs were sampled for the estimation of physico-chemical parameters and major ions. The results indicate that majority of the spring waters in the study area are suitable for drinking as well as irrigation purposes except for few locations. About 14% of springs showed high nitrate content (45 to 92.6 mg/L) more than BIS permissible limit of 45 mg/L. The source of contamination could be sewage disposal, livestock waste and fertilizers. Fluoride (0.16–0.49 mg/L) was found to be within permissible limits for drinking. Drinking Water Quality Index ranges from 1.74 to 108, and Irrigation Water Quality Index ranges from 0.27 to 8.21. Both these indices indicate that the spring water falls in excellent to good category and is suitable in terms of potability and irrigation uses. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the spring waters indicate that alkaline earths (Ca2+ + Mg2+) dominate alkalies (Na+ + K+) and strong acids (SO42− + Cl−) dominate weak acids (CO32− + HCO3−). Based on Piper’s classification, the spring water data falls in no cation–no anion dominant zone followed by carbonate hardness (secondary alkalinity) zone and hydrochemical trends (Piper’s and Gibb’s plots) inferred that spring water chemistry is mainly controlled by water rock interaction followed by rainwater chemistry.

During a growout period of 14 weeks, the productive performance, organosomatic indices and body composition of the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultivated at high density reusing the water from systems with biofloc technology (BFT) were evaluated. Two treatments: tilapia cultured in biofloc (TB) and tilapia cultured in reused water biofloc (RW) were established. Mixed sex, juvenile Nile tilapia (average weight and length: 79.28 ± 14.44 g and 12.44 ± 0.70 cm) were stocked into 6 experimental units (0.2 m3) at a density of 100 fish/m3. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved salts, pH, NH4–N, NH3–N and NO3–N were recorded daily, while NO2–N, general hardness, carbonate hardness and settleable solids were recorded weekly. The weight and length of the tilapias were recorded biweekly. Survival, productive performance, proximal composition and organosomatic indices of Nile tilapia were evaluated. The water parameters in RW treatment such as pH, total dissolved salts, NO2–N, NO3–N and carbonate hardness were significantly greater (p 98% under both treatments. The final weight (TB = 163.09 ± 42.34 g, RW = 159.23 ± 39.92 g), protein (19.1%) and lipid (2.2%) content of the tilapia were non-significantly different between treatments. In addition, no significant differences in the gonadosomatic and hepatosomatic indices were observed either between tilapia sex or between the treatments. The results suggest that the intensive cultivation of Nile tilapia in biofloc can be established using reuse water from BFT systems, without adverse effects on their survival, productive performance, proximal composition and gonadal development.

Hydrochemical facies, groundwater evolution, and physicochemical reactions between soil or rock and water are of considerable importance when evaluating or predicting the nature of anthropogenic impacts on groundwater quality. In this respect a total of 67 ground water samples were collected randomly in Akure, southwestern, Nigeria from hand pump/dug wells and analyzed for major cations and anions. The domination of cations and anions was in the order of Ca2+ > K+ > Na+ > Mg2+ and > Cl- > > respectively. The pH and Eh of the water samples show an acidic condition, with low salinity hazard (generally less than 250 μS/cm). The Piper classification for hydrogeochemical facies indicates carbonate hardness (secondary alkalinity) exceeds 50% that is by alkaline earths and weak acids, with Ca2+ + Mg2+ + water-type. This also suggests a meteoric origin of water quality caused by rock-water interaction. The ratio of and Cl- is greater than 1 and implies recharge area or upper water flow course of carbonate rocks (interaction of water with aquifer material). The Na+:Cl- is less than 0.7 signifying loss of Na+ through precipitation of evaporating water; the water is Ca2+ rich and Na+ depleted with Mg2+:Ca2+ less than 0.5 and Na+:K+ less than 15. The Na+:Ca2+ (

Hydrogeochemical investigation was carried out in the Western Doon valley, to understand the geochemistry of the groundwater and to assess the overall physic-chemical characteristics. To attempt this goal, 50 groundwater samples of dug well and tube well were collected using pre-cleaned polyethylene containers from the different geological formations of the study area. The physical and chemical parameters of the analytical results of groundwater samples were compared with the standard guideline values recommended by the World Health Organization for drinking and public health standards. Thematic layers pertaining to Ca2+, Mg2+, NO3- and total hardness (TH) were generated using GIS platform. The hydrochemistry of groundwater quality for drinking purpose was evaluated by plotting the cations, anions in the Piper's Trilinear diagram, which indicates the alkaline and weak acids dominance, and carbonate hardness exceeds 50%. Expanded durov diagram implies Ca2+–HCO3- dominance, indicating recharging of water in sandstone aquifer. Based on the hydrogeochemical analysis for irrigation quality, certain parameters like carbonate hardness, sodium adsorption ratio, sodium percent, salinity hazard, residual sodium carbonate, Kelley's ratio, index of base exchange and permeability index were calculated. Besides this, a comparison of the groundwater quality in relation to drinking water quality standards shows that most of the groundwater samples are good for drinking as well as irrigation purposes and controlled by lithology apart from other local environmental conditions as the concentration of the cations and anion increases in the post-monsoon season. The results of hydrogeochemical are helpful to generate the baseline information and roadmap for future research on groundwater resources to assess the water quality in relation to agricultural and domestic uses in the Western Doon valley.

Objectives: To analyze the physical and chemical characteristics of a groundwater samples (Tannery industrial area). The suitability of groundwater for domestic purpose has been interpreted using Geographical Information system. Methods/Materials: Groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters as per the standard procedures prescribed by American Public Health Association (APHA) using standard techniques, to determine Colour, Odour, Turbidity, conductivity, pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), alkalinity, Methyl Orange Alkalinity Total Hardness, Carbonate Hardness, Non Carbonate Hardness, Phenopthenlein, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, sulphate, Iron, Nitrate, and Silica and compared with water quality standards. Findings: Colour, pH (ranges 7.36 to 8.33), Methyl Orange Alkalinity (ranges 2 to 67 mg/l), Phenopthenlein Alkalinity (maximum 82 mg/l), Calcium (

The use of the reverse osmosis process in water treatment often requires the careful selection of methods of pretreatment. This especially applies to mineralised water, ferruginous water, water with a high carbonate hardness and also water with a tendency to precipitate sulphate and silica deposits. Increased feed water temperature may be a further factor which could encourage scaling of the membrane. To decrease the number of divalent ions, the nanofiltration process was tested with the use of a commercial NF-270 membrane (Dow Filmtec). Filtration was performed under a transmembrane pressure of about 10 bar with cross-flow filtration. Tests were carried out on two highly mineralised geothermal waters mineralisation (TDS 2.2–2.3 g/L), more than 600 mgCaCO 3 /L and a high silica concentration. Before laboratory tests, the tendency to precipitate mineral deposits was determined by means of geochemical modelling. In addition, appropriate doses of antiscalant were selected to avoid the precipitation of deposits on the NF membrane. The research was carried out on different variations of: 1) two temperatures: 30 °C and 17 °C and 2) the use of raw water and water with the addition of antiscalant (Hydrex). During tests the changes of membrane effectiveness with time were observed. Qualitative and quantitative identification of the precipitate deposits on the NF-270 membrane was made for each of the variants of the water pre-treatment process.

The chief constituents in water samples are obtained by the geochemical analysis. The results are then studied for various utility purposes, such as domestic, drinking, and agriculture. The results are also studied for understanding the thermodynamic states to determine geochemistry and the nature of the reactions. There are several software's available for this purpose, but still they do not include all the required parameters for the classification purpose or all the popular diagrams basically required for the study. In this context a software was coded in C++ and compiled in Visual C for the basic interpretation of the geochemical data, considering the utility thermodynamic nature and classification of water. The input data includes Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, HCO3, SO4, F, NO3, Si, TDS, EC, pH and Temperature. The output of the software presents the parameters like I.B.E. (Index to Base Exchange), Schollers water type, R.S.C. (Residual sodium carbonate), S.A.R. (Sodium Adsorption Ratio), N.C.H. (Non Carbonate Hardness), P.I, (Permeability Index), K.R. (Kellys Ratio), P.S. (Potential Salinity), M.H. (Magnesium hazard), S.S.P. (Soluble Sodium Percentage) and Na% (Sodium Percentage). The software also calculates the Scholler Classification, Corrositvity ratio, Chloride Classification, Cation, Anion facies and Handas Classification for each sample. The corrosive nature of the water sample is also determined by the software by calculating Puckorius Scaling index, Ryznar stability index, Larson-Skold index, Langelier saturation index and Aggressive index for each sample. Activity coefficient, Ionic activity and silicate stability diagrams were designed in the output. Later the total number samples were grouped based on the standard classification adopted for each calculated parameter. Standard diagrams like USSL, Johnsons plot, Gibbs, Doneens, other thermodynamic plots for Na, K, Mg for silicate system also form the output of the software. The output are saved in different files as opted during the execution of the program.

The aim of this study is to assess the groundwater quality of Rangampeta area for irrigation and domestic purposes. The groundwater samples were analyzed for distribution of chemical elements Ca, Mg, Na, K, Si, HCO3, CO3, Cl and SO4. It also includes pH, electrical conductivity, total hardness, non carbonate hardness and total alkalinity. The parameters like sodium absorption ratio, adjusted sodium absorption ratio, sodium percentage, potential salinity, permeability index and residual sodium carbonate were calculated. The dominant hydrochemical facies of groundwater are Ca–Mg–Cl and Na–Cl Water Types. The Gibbs’s diagram plots suggest that the chemical weathering of rock forming minerals is the major driving force controlling water chemistry in this area. The positive chloro-alkaline indices revealed that the groundwater has suffered ion exchange between Na and K of water with Ca and Mg of soil during its flow.

In this paper, we propose results of research on the establishment of presence of components in water of the southern cities of the Republic of Kazakhstan such as carbonate hardness, noncarbonate hardness and total hardness, content of free carbonic acid and impurities of different ions of iron (twoand three-valent), sulphate and chlorine ions, pH value. When the research course parameters of heat carrier (water): carbonate hardness, non-carbonate hardness, and the total hardness, content of free carbonic acid ions and HCO3 -, pH value, content of two and three valence iron ions, sulphate and chloride-ions in water were established, indicators of corrosion were calculatedby the value, which we concluded about the strength of corrosive effect on steel foundation of pipelines.

Live transport of fishes is recognised as a major source of stress leading to poor welfare and mortality within the ornamental fish industry. While previous studies have aimed to simulate the stressors experienced by fishes during transport in the laboratory, there is little documented evidence of the actual conditions experienced by fishes under commercial conditions. The aim of this study was to monitor water quality and fish health (physiology and behaviour) through a commercial supply chain for three popular freshwater ornamentals (neon tetra, oranda, variatus platy). Water samples were collected at nine stages of the supply chain beginning at arrival of the fishes at a UK wholesaler from Singapore through their recovery at the wholesaler, to subsequent shipment to and recovery at retail stores. Water chemistry was recorded at various points in the transport chain and the water tested for common fish pathogens. Fish health parameters measured included mortality, injuries, waterborne cortisol and behavioural changes. Most water parameters were found to change significantly through the transport chain, including pH, carbonate hardness (KH), chloride (Cl−), nitrate (NO3−), sodium (Na+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+) and calcium (Ca2+). Pathogens were detected in the water at each stage of transport, but no disease outbreaks were observed. Mortality was low and was not affected by transport stage. Behaviour was found to change the most between different stages of transport. Neon tetras and orandas showed some behavioural changes during transport but the behaviour of variatus platys was more affected by transport stage. The findings of this study highlight the changes in water quality experienced by fishes during commercial transport that are often over-looked in simulated studies and confirm the need for species-specific indicators of welfare during commercial transport.

The groundwater quality assessment for the drinking and irrigation purpose is carried out in the Kandivalasa River Sub Basin covered with khondalitic suite (Garneti ferrous, Sillimanite, Gneiss) of rocks, near Cheepurupalli town of Vizianagaram district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The analysis for the groundwater quality for drinking has shown the slightly alkaline nature and high values of alkalinity in the study area. A very high concentration of total dissolved solids value is observed at one pocket where there has been contamination by many fertilizer industries located nearby the study area. The groundwater is highly affected by the nitrate. Higher fluoride values are obtained at few pockets. Most of the samples in the study area are categorized as very hard category. According to the Piper trilinear diagram, it can be observed that the carbonate hardness and secondary salinity have occupied at major part of study area. From the analysis of sodium adsorption ratio, salinity hazard, sodium percentage, residual sodium carbonate, and Kelly's ratio, all the groundwater samples except at few locations fell under the category of good to excellent for irrigation. The prepared integrated groundwater quality maps for the drinking purpose and agricultural purposes are indicating that, by and large, the low-lying areas are having poor groundwater quality than the uplands for drinking as well as agricultural needs which means that the groundwater quality of the basin is following the topography.

Hydrogeochemical status of the Purna alluvial basin, Maharashtra has been interpreted on the basis of 158 groundwater samples collected from dug wells (60) i.e., shallow aquifer and bore wells (98) i.e., deep aquifer each during pre- and post-monsoon periods of the year 2009. The samples were analyzed for their physicochemical parameters i.e., pH, EC, TDS, Ca, Mg, Na, K, TH, Al, Cl, SO4, NO3 and HCO3. The mean values of cation concentration show a trend of Na>Ca>Mg>K, while anions are in order of HCO3>Cl>SO4>NO3 from both deep and shallow aquifers. The plot of chemical data on Piper’s trilinear diagram reveals that majority of the groundwater samples fall in the fields of alkalis exceeding alkaline earths, weak acids exceeding strong acids, carbonate hardness exceeding 50%, and no cation and anion pairs exceeding 50%. The cationic and anionic triangular fields of the diagram show that sodium-potassium type (Na+K) of water is dominant in the cationic, and bicarbonate type (HCO3) in the anionic category. The analytical data also reveal the existence of six groundwater facies in the area, i.e., (i) Ca-Mg-HCO3, (ii) Na-Cl, (iii) Na-HCO3, (iv) Ca-Cl, (v) Na-Ca-HCO3 (mixed type) and, (vi) Ca-Mg-Cl (mixed type). Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies is predominant in the northern, northeastern, eastern, southeastern and northwestern peripheries of the alluvial basin. Na-Cl and Na-HCO3, facies are confined to certain parts of the eastern and central regions, as well as in a few small patches along the Purna river channel. These areas are represented by moderate to high salinity. Na-Cl-SO4 facies is limited to a small patch situated in the central part of the basin representing excess concentrations of sodium and chloride.Water of Na-Ca-HCO3 (mixed type) is the most dominant covering most of the area on both sides of the Purna main channel in the eastern, central and western regions. Two small patches having Ca-Mg-Cl type of water has also been identified in the basin area.

The coagulation of coal particles in a coal-water slurry from the Novo-Irkutsk thermal power plant was studied. The advisability of the application of highly basic aluminum hydroxochloride of grade B for the treatment of contaminated water with a concentration of suspended particles of 30 g/dm3 was shown. The granulometric analysis of coal particles was performed. The application of the reagent was revealed to be efficient for the coagulation of both coarse particles and a finely dispersed fraction. Carbonate hardness values of up to 1.5 mmol-equiv/dm3 and pH ≤ 7.8 were shown to be typical for the contaminated water from the fuel supply shop. They were the most optimal parameters for hydrolysis and efficient flocculation and did not require the addition of sodium bicarbonate and flocculants. The process flowsheet of the separate purification of a coal-water slurry was developed for the fuel supply shop. Among the advantages of this purification method are the return of rather highly purified water for thermal power plant needs, and also the production of additional fuel in the form of recovered coal particles. The product was characterized by improved engineering parameters in comparison with the initial fuel, i.e., had a higher calorific value and a lower sulfur content. The purified water corresponded to the normative requirements to the content of residual aluminum. This technology of purification was resource-saving, environmental-friendly, and economically profitable.

The water quality of Pauri District of Uttarakhand, India has been assessed during pre- and post-monsoon seasons to express the suitability of water for drinking purposes. The values of turbidity and iron exceed the permissible limit prescribed by Indian Standards for drinking purpose. Some sites were also contaminated with large number of total and fecal coliform bacteria. Piper diagrams exhibit that all water samples fall in Ca-Mg-HCO3 hydrochemical facies and show the nature of carbonate hardness during both seasons. Based on the seasonal variation, the concentrations of most of the parameters considerably decreased during post-monsoon season and show the dilution effect of rain water in monsoon season. Water quality index describes the suitability of all sources for drinking purpose with ‘Good’ and ‘Excellent’ water quality during pre- and post-monsoon seasons, respectively.

Optimum detergent dosage during a washing process depends on water quality, degree of pollution and quantity of laundry. Particularly, water quality is an important factor. Other parameters like carbonate- or non-carbonate hardness and calcium / magnesium (Ca / Mg) ratio in addition to total hardness of water have an impact on the amount of detergent. This work discusses the possibilities realizing a detergent sensor that measures important parameters for the washing process and assess the ideal necessary amount of detergent during the washing process. The approach is to combine impedance spectroscopy with cyclic voltammetry in order to determine both water quality and concentration of detergent in the suds which build up the basis for an optimum detergent dosage. The results of cyclic voltammetry show that it is possible to identify the Ca / Mg ratio and the carbonate hardness separately, which is necessary for the optimization of the washing process. Impedance measurements identify total hardness and detergent concentrations.

Groundwater quality investigation has been carried out from a sub-urban area of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India, to find out the controlling processes of groundwater chemistry spatially, leading to groundwater contamination. The groundwater quality is characterized by fresh to brackish and hard types, with Ca2+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+: HCO 3 − > Cl − > SO 4 2 − > NO 3 − facies. According to the pollution index of groundwater (PIG), most of the study area (70%) comes under the insignificant pollution zone and the rest (30%) under the low pollution zone. The chemical variables from the hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) demonstrate three distinct clusters, which measure TDS in Cluster I, HCO 3 − and TH in Cluster II, and Cl − , Na+, Ca2+, SO 4 2 − , Mg2+, NO 3 − , K+ and pH in Cluster III, representing the salinity, carbonate hardness and pollution processes, respectively. Groundwater samples from the HCA are categorized into three groups, which show less, moderately and highly mineralized groundwater qualities in Group I, II and III, respectively, depending upon the geogenic processes and the anthropogenic activities. The groundwater samples of Group III influenced by low pollution activity, which support the low pollution zone of PIG, establish the fact that the controlling processes of groundwater chemistry lead to groundwater contamination spatially. The present study helps taking the strategic management measures at specific sites for sustainable development of groundwater resources.

The present study is conducted with the purpose of determining the chemical characteristics of groundwater that supplies 16 wells in the state of Coahuila, which are used for different human activities. Sampling was conducted in January 2011. For 56% of the fifteen wells tested, analysis did not detect the presence of aluminum; however, wells 2, 3, 6, 8 and 13 had concentrations above the permissible limit established by the Mexican standard NOM-127-SSA1-1994. For cadmium, only the well 3 was above the Norm. Meanwhile, iron was above the permissible limit in eight wells (2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13 and 15). Lead exceeded the limit in wells 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12. In general, for the rest of the parameters listed in the Norm, values were below allowable limits. By using Piper diagrams, it was observed that in general, the waters tested showed characteristic calcium bicarbonate. By establishing a matrix of correlations between chemical parameters, it was observed that the highest significant correlations occurred among carbonate hardness, calcium, lead and total alkalinity, with r2 values greater than 0.82. Also, high correlations were found between some metal species, suggesting a common origin. The allowed Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis establish the associations between all analyzed physicochemical parameters, and they also determine the wells with similar characteristics.

Water is an essential ingredient for coffee extraction, typically making up more than 90% of the final beverage. This chapter introduces the basic characteristics of water and the most common dissolved contents. The concepts of water hardness and alkalinity are explained while discerning between technical and sensory aspects with regards to coffee extraction. The existing recommendations on the optimum water composition are discussed as well as the potential off-flavors that can arise from nonideal composition. As a link between a given water composition and a targeted recommendation the most common water treatment methods are systematically characterized. The chapter concludes with practical examples on the impact of different water compositions in a cupping experiment and espresso extraction.

The water quality of Legedadi Reservoir, which provides more than seventy five percent of the water supplies to Addis Ababa City, is deteriorating from time and time. The reservoir has suffered water quality problems for several decades due to unacceptable changes in the odor, color and other parameters. In this study the seasonal and spatial dynamics of physico-chemical parameters of Legedadi Reservoir were investigated at monthly intervals. The study was conducted from November to August at three study Sites (represented as Sites 1, 2 and 3) in the reservoir. All physicochemical parameters were measured using standard techniques in Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority, Central Laboratory. The reservoir is characterized by unusually high turbidity throughout the study period (with most values >400 NTU) mainly due to sediment influx during run off and resuspension of sediment. Secchi depth (transparency) of the reservoir was extremely shallow and (always

A hydrogeochemical study was conducted in Thoothukudi district situated in the southeast coast of Tamil Nadu, India to identify the influence of saltwater intrusion and suitability of groundwater for domestic and agricultural purposes. Scattered studies of this coastal region have reported signs of seawater intrusion, salt pan and industrial activity together with natural weathering process. To have a holistic picture of geochemical processes in the entire district, a total of 135 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for major cations and anions. The geochemical parameters were compared with world and Indian standards and it was found that most samples are unsuitable for drinking purpose. The geochemical facies of the groundwater showed Na–Cl as the dominant water type indicating the saline nature of the groundwater. Chadda’s plots show that most of the samples fall in the Na–Cl type of water due to seawater intrusion. The samples were classified with parameters like sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, total hardness, chloride, index to base exchange, electrical conductivity and facies to determine their suitability for irrigation purpose. It was inferred that the samples falling along the coast are not suitable for the irrigation purpose. The seawater-mixing percentage indicates that strong mixing was observed in the near shore and at the proximity of the salt pan. The permanent hardness was predominant in all the samples compared to the carbonate hardness reducing its domestic usability.

Installing chemical power sources in the filter makes the treatment of natural and waste water from organic substances more intense and results in reducing carbonate hardness. The design of the chemical power sources is optimized on the basis of their parameters’ measuring. Electrochemical filters with a number of power sources are described in the article. The process of increasing the effect of water conditioning in the filters can be seen.

The study area in Gulbarga District, Karnataka State, India, is selected to discuss the surface water quality of Bhima River on irrigation and human health, where the agriculture is the main livelihood of rural people and the surface water is the main source for irrigation and drinking. Surface water collected during pre-monsoon for two months from three sampling points in the area were analyzed for pH, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate, DO, BOD, Alkalinity, Sodium, Potassium and Fluoride. The chemical relationships in Piper’s diagram and Gibb’s diagram suggest that the surface water mainly belong to carbonate hardness (secondary alkalinity) and non-carbonate hardness (primary salinity) and are controlled by Rock dominance, respectively, due to the influence of semi-arid, gentle slope, greater water-rock interaction and anthropogenic activities. US salinity Laboratory and % Na + used for evaluating the water quality for irrigation suggest that the majority of the sampling points of surface water are moderate for irrigation in pre-monsoon. These conditions are caused due to leaching of salts from the overlying materials by infiltration recharge waters. A management plan is a must for sustainable development of the area.

Fluoride (F(-)) is essential for normal bone growth, but its higher concentration in the drinking water poses great health problems and fluorosis is common in many parts of India. The present paper deals with the aim of establishment of facts of the chemical characteristics responsible for the higher concentration of F(-) in the groundwater, after understanding the chemical behavior of F(-) in relation to pH, total alkalinity (TA), total hardness (TH), carbonate hardness (CH), non-carbonate hardness (NCH), and excess alkalinity (EA) in the groundwater observed from the known areas of endemic fluorosis zones of Andhra Pradesh that have abundant sources of F(-)-bearing minerals of the Precambrians. The chemical data of the groundwater shows that the pH increases with increase F(-); the concentration of TH is more than the concentration of TA at low F(-) groundwater, the resulting water is represented by NCH; the TH has less concentration compared to TA at high F(-) groundwater, causing the water that is characterized by EA; and the water of both low and high concentrations of F(-) has CH. As a result, the F(-) has a positive relation with pH and TA, and a negative relation with TH. The operating mechanism derived from these observations is that the F(-) is released from the source into the groundwater by geochemical reactions and that the groundwater in its flowpath is subjected to evapotranspiration due to the influence of dry climate, which accelerates a precipitation of CaCO(3) and a reduction of TH, and thereby a dissolution of F(-). Furthermore, the EA in the water activates the alkalinity in the areas of alkaline soils, leading to enrichment of F(-). Therefore, the alkaline condition, with high pH and EA, and low TH, is a more conducive environment for the higher concentration of F(-) in the groundwater.

The corrosion of low-carbon steels in natural deep-well water of Moldova and in a number of process environments is studied. Peculiarities of the corrosion process in the model solutions depending on the chemical composition, total salt content, total and carbonate hardness, and other parameters of aqueous environments are found.

The article has investigated the impact of the structure and chemical nature of the surface of membranes on their functional characteristics in pressure-driven processes of purifying artesian waters with an increased carbonate hardness in the absence and with an addition of inhibitors of sludge formation of various types. It is shown that in the absence of the inhibitor the sediment formation intensity is determined by two factors—chemical nature and initial structure of membranes. After the introduction to the water of the inhibitor (independent of its type) sludge formation is slowed down due to a decrease of the impact of both factors. Data were obtained, which indicate a different mechanism of inhibition of sludge formation of the polymers used.

Analysis of water, plankton, fish and sediment reveals that the Cauvery River water in the downstream is contaminated by certain heavy metals. Water samples have high carbonate hardness. Concentrations of all elements and ions increase in the downstream. Main ions are in the following order: Na > HCO3>Mg > K > Ca> Cl > SO4. Heavy metal concentration in water was Cr >Cu ≈ Mn > Co > Ni > Pb > Zn, in fish muscles Cr > Mn > Cu > Ni > Co > Pb ≈ Zn, in phytoplanktens Co > Zn > Pb > Mn > Cr and in the sediments the heavy metal concentration was Co > Cr > Ni ≈ Cu > Mn > Zn > Pb. Although, the quality of Cauvery River may be classified as very good based on the salt and sodium for irrigation, Zn, Pb and Cr concentration exceeded the upper limit of standards. Metal concentrations in the downstream indicate an increase in the pollution load due to movement of fertilizers, agricultural ashes, industrial effluents and anthropogenic wastes. An immediate attention from the concerned authorities is required in order to protect the river from further pollution.

Groundwater quality in the coastal city of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India, has been studied from 1975 to 1992 because the industrialization of the city has resulted in environmental pollution. The groundwater quality from the soil/weathered zone and from the zones affected by industrial, urban, and seawater activities has been assessed in terms of pollution. The increase in the concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, , Cl, , , total alkalinity, total hardness, and total dissolved solids from 1975 to 1992 leads to a change from carbonate hardness to noncarbonate hardness in the groundwater, especially because of Cl, , and . The study infers that the industrial activity is more responsible for groundwater contamination, causing health disorders. Measures on a groundwater-quality monitoring program are suggested for the sustainable development of the urban area.

The CO2 released in MSF distillers can be used for the recarbonation of the distillate. The recarbonation method using CO2 from the vent gases of MSF distillers has gained importance, since the post-treatment of potable water can be affected without additional CO2 production by combustion processes. In Kuwait, recarbonation process has been adopted as the remedial treatment. The recarbonation system is intended to increase the carbonate hardness in the potable water thereby minimizing corrosion in the water distribution system, thus eliminating to a great extent the “red water” problem. It also improves the palatability of the drinking water. To achieve these objectives recarbonation system makes use of released CO2 from the MSF evaporators and adopts limestone dissolution with necessary pH control. This is regarded as reasonably effective and an economical solution as well.

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of environmental variables on the structure of benthic diatom assemblages, and to propose type assemblages of diatoms characterizing unpolluted headwater streams of Luxembourg. A total of 289 diatom samples were collected in the headwater streams of Luxembourg. At each sampling site, physical and chemical variables were also measured. The relationships between environmental variables and the distribution of the taxa were estimated using univariate and multivariate statistical analyses. On the basis of geology and stream water chemistry, Luxembourg could be separated in two regions. The streams in the schistose northern part of Luxembourg presented a low carbonate hardness (median 3.5° F); the streams in the southern part of Luxembourg presented a high carbonate hardness (median 21.8° F) notably connected to the presence of sandstone and limestone substrata. A Twinspan classification carried out on diatom assemblages defined two groups of samples corresponding to these two regions. The carbonate hardness that is related to the nature of the geological substratum appeared to be the major structuring variable for the assemblage composition. Anthropogenic pollution was a secondary structuring variable for diatom assemblages since each group could be subdivided in subgroups presenting statistically different nutrient and organic matter concentrations. The diatom assemblages of these subgroups were characterised by differences of saprobic and trophic preferences. On the basis of these results, two type assemblages of diatoms are proposed for the unpolluted headwater streams in the two regions of Luxembourg. The presence of these different type assemblages in Luxembourg shows the necessity to adapt diatom bioindication to the different regions of the country.

In order to control the quality of beer and raw materials for production of beer in Belgrade Beer Industry (BIP), water is analyzed (city, technological and demineralized water). Measurements of pH values indicated the increased pH values in the sample of technological water, which had no impact on wort hopping, since the tested samples of wort, young beer and final product had a pH value within the expected range. After processing city water, a sample of technological water was found with increased carbonate hardness, which is caused by the increased content of sodium hydrogen carbonate. Analysing the titration alkalinity, titration acidity and buffering power, it was found that the alkalinity was decreasing which is in accordance with the determination of pH values of wort and beer samples (young beer and final product). Analyzing the content of anions and cations in the examined water samples, it has been shown that the concentration of these examinated anions (Cl-, NO3-, SO42- and PO43-) and cations (NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) are within the limits prescribed by the Regulations on hygienic safety of drinking water, and thus by the Regulations of quality and other requirements for beer. The contents of anions in wort and beer samples (young beer and final product) were determined by ion chromatography method. The contents of sulphate and nitrate ions were within the recommended limits. The concentration of chloride ions was above 150 mg/dm3, which may have an impact on the sensory properties of beer, while changes in the content of phosphate ions were insignificant. U cilju kontrole kvaliteta piva i sirovina za proizvodnju piva u Beogradskoj industriji piva (BIP) analizirana je voda (gradska, tehnološka i demineralizovana). Merenja pH vrednosti ukazala su na povećanu vrednost pH u uzorku tehnološke vode, ali to nije imalo uticaja na ukomljavanje slada pošto su ispitivani uzorci sladovine, kao i uzorci mladog piva i gotovog proizvoda imali vrednost pH u očekivanom opsegu. Obradom gradske vode dobio se uzorak tehnološke vode sa povećanom karbonatnom tvrdoćom, koja je prouzrokovana povećanim sadržajem natrijum-hidrogenkarbonata. Analizom titracionog alkaliteta, titracionog aciditeta, i moći puferovanja, utvrđeno je da se alkalitet smanjuje što je u saglasnosti i sa određivanjem pH vrednosti uzoraka sladovine i piva (mladog i gotovog proizvoda). Analiza sadržaja anjona i katjona u ispitivanim uzorcima vode, pokazala je da je koncentracija ispitivanih anjona (Cl-, NO3-, SO42- i PO43-) i katjona (NH4+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) u granicama propisanim Pravilnikom o higijenskoj ispravnosti vode za piće, a time i sa Pravilnikom o kvalitetu i drugim zahtevima za pivo. Sadržaj anjona u uzorcima sladovine i piva (mladog i gotovog proizvoda) određen je metodom jonske hromatografije. Sadržaj sulfat- i nitrat-jona je bio u preporučenim granicama. Koncentracija hlorid-jona je bila iznad 150 mg/dm3, što može imati uticaja na senzorne karakteristike piva, dok je promena sadržaja fosfat-jona bila neznatna.

A água é um recurso fundamental para a vida na terra e a sua qualidade define seus diversos usos. A qualidade da água é entendida como resultado das ações antrópicas e da sua interação com o meio físico. Assim a água possui características físicas, químicas e biológicas em virtude de suas propriedades de solvente e de sua capacidade de transportar partículas. Dentre as características químicas está a dureza de carbonatos que representa a concentração de íons como o cálcio e o magnésio em solução. Esses íons estão presentes na água subterrânea através de processos de intemperismo químico que dependem do tempo de contato entre a água e a rocha, temperatura, CO2 disponível e da presença de ácidos orgânicos e inorgânicos. Em níveis elevados de dureza total a água apresenta um sabor diferenciado o que pode ser desagradável ao paladar das pessoas. O objetivo desse trabalho é verificar o abrandamento da concentração dos carbonatos de cálcio e magnésio, pela dissolução de gás carbônico e hidróxido de cálcio, alterando o equilíbrio do sistema carbonato. Foram testadas a água carbonatada, água carbonatada e aerada e a água natural com cinco concentrações de hidróxido de cálcio (0, 25, 50, 75 e 150 mg L-1). O parâmetro avaliado foi a dureza de carbonatos. Os experimentos foram configurados em fatorial com dois fatores, aplicou-se o teste Tukey a um nível de 1% de significância. Os resultados mostraram que o fator água e o fator concentração de hidróxido foram significativos a 1% de significância, já a interação dos dois fatores não. Contudo o melhor resultado na remoção da dureza foi na concentração de 150 mg L-1 de hidróxido de cálcio em água carbonatada e aerada.

Water taken from the Crestuma–Lever dam on the Douro River was evaluated considering the Portuguese Decree-law no. 236/98 of 1st August, 1998. This paper presents the metrological characteristics, validation of analytical methodologies and the data obtained from seasonal samplings. The test parameters selected are: temperature, pH, chloride, conductivity, carbon dioxide, alkalinity, hardness, oxidability, dissolved oxygen, BOD5, total suspended solids, sulfide, phosphate, silica, ammonium, nitrite, nitrate, sulfate, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper and zinc. From data analysis we can conclude that the water presented the following characteristics: a pH situated in the neutral zone; a median mineralization; a medium hardness; well oxygenated water; and a carbonate hardness exclusively due to bicarbonates. The temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, chlorides, sulfates, copper, zinc and BOD5 were compared with the legal limits presented in annexes XXI and I of Decree-law 236/98. The results relating to total hardness, nitrites, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, aluminium, sulfides and oxidability were compared with the legal values in annex VI as there are no limits relating to these parameters in annexes XXI and I.

The problem of the growth of a crystalline calcium carbonate layer on the heating surface contacting water with a high carbonate hardness is considered. A physicochemical model is discussed that qualitatively explains the self-deceleration of scale growth. The flux of the crystallizing substance is considered and is demonstrated to vary nonlinearly with the interface temperature, and its asymptotics are analyzed. A nonlinear differential macrokinetic equation is derived for the growth of a scale layer. The closed solution of this equation is presented, as well as the analytic solution of the corresponding linearized equation. The results obtained explain the self-deceleration phenomenon and suggest the mechanism of the effect of turbulization on its magnitude.

As in other chemical water softening technologies, the objective of the lime–soda ash process is to precipitate polyvalent cations from solution by pH adjustment. In water treatment applications, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the two major cations of concern, though Fe2+, Fe3+, Al3+, and Mn2+ may also be present at problematic concentrations, depending on the properties of soil or geological material encountered by the surface or groundwater. Typically, a total hardness ranging from 75–120 mg/L as CaCO3, is sought in domestic water softening. In this process, lime and soda ash are added to solution, Ca2+ precipitates as CaCO3(), and Mg precipitates as Mg(OH)2(). To precipitate CaCO3, the pH of the water must be raised to approximately 10.3. Similarly, Mg(OH)2() forms when the pH is raised above 11. When there is not enough naturally occurring bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO3−) in water to form the CaCO3 precipitate, alkalinity must be added (typically as Na2CO3). Keywords: water softening; lime–soda ash process; solubility; cation removal; precipitation–dissolution; carbonate hardness; noncarbonate hardness

Optimum detergent dosage during a washing process depends on water quality, degree of pollution and quantity of laundry. Particularly, water quality is an important factor. Other parameters like carbonateor non-carbonate hardness and calcium-magnesium ratio in addition to total hardness of water have an impact on the amount of detergent. This work discusses the possibilities to realize a detergent sensor which measures important parameters for the washing process and assess the ideal necessary amount of detergent during the washing process. We propose to combine impedance spectroscopy with cyclic voltammetry in order to determine both water quality and concentration of detergent in the suds which build up the basis for an optimum detergent dosage. The results of cyclic voltammetry show that it is possible to identify the calcium-magnesium ratio and the carbonate hardness separately, which is necessary for the optimization of the washing process. Impedance measurements identify total hardness and detergent concentrations.

An alternative to intensify fish production, reducing the environmental impact and production costs are recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). The performance of a RAS was evaluated, as fish growth and water quality conditions, in a culture of Piaractus mesopotamicus reared for ornamental purposes. Two commercial food brands with different protein contents (18%-TI and 28%-T2), were given to juvenile fishes during an eight weeks period. Growth was measured bi-weekly: standard length (Lp), peak height (A), weight and multiple condition factor (KM). The evaluation of water parameters included: dissolved oxygen, NH3-NH4, pH, NO2, NO3, KH carbonate hardness and PO4. NH3-N rate production was analyzed following Timmons-Ebeling model. Results demonstrated significant differences in weight only, and T2 showed a 7.5% higher value than T1; nevertheless, treatment T1 had a higher KM. In general, water quality values were suitable for growth: OD=T1: 4.23±1.23; T2: 4.13±0.86; NH3=T1: 0.02±0.02; T2: 0.06±0.10; however, pH was an exception (T1: 6.95±0.98; T2: 7.11±1.03), displaying lethal rates (

Chemical stability of water should be high enough to ensure that the water reaching the consumers would have the same composition as at the treatment plant. The drinking water supplied by one of the water treatment plants for the city of Poznan was observed to produce periodically white non-sedimenting precipitate on boiling, deteriorating its organoleptic properties. The phenomenon was found to be related to a high content of magnesium in the water taken for treatment and low content of other ions besides bicarbonates. XRD and SEM analyses have shown that a low ratio of calcium ions to magnesium ions leads to formation of calcite crystals on water boiling in which a fraction of cationic crystallographic sites are substituted with Mg 2+ ions giving (Ca 1− x Mg x )CO 3 crystallites. Such crystallites have smaller size than those of calcite formed on boiling water coming from other Poznan suppliers. The smaller size of the crystallites is responsible for their slower sedimentation and hence the observed increase in the water turbidity on its boiling. It has been proved that the appearance of precipitates in drinking water at the consumers can be achieved by reduction of the Mg/(Mg + Ca) ratio to below 3, which would inhibit peptisation of the precipitate and prevent water opacity and/or adjustment of pH of the raw water and removal of the carbon dioxide released to convert some carbonate hardness into non-carbonate one. These measures will limit the amount of the precipitate forming upon water boiling and change its microcrystalline type into an easier sedimenting one.

Fish rely on the qualities of water for many biological processes and their health depends on several key parameters, including temperature, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, pH, carbonate hardness, general hardness, dissolved oxygen and salinity. This article gives an overview of each water parameter as it applies to fish health, and gives advice on practical ways to correct water quality problems.

This article presents results of groundwater quality assessment based on some corrosion-encrustation index parameters (CEIP) and drinking water standards. The CEIP concentration results indicate that the hydrogen ion concentration, pH ranges from 5.4 to 7.6, total iron, Fe varies from 0.02 to 3.0mg/l; Manganese Mn concentration was found to be from 0.01 to 1.0mg/l; the total dissolved solids TDS content of 13.0 to 273.7mg/l; Dissolved oxygen DO of 0.4 to 6.2mg/l; Hydrogen sulphide H2S of 0.01 to 2.5mg/l; Chloride Cl of 2.6 to 16.2mg/l and bicarbonate HCO-3 ranged 20.5 to 80.9mg/l while total carbonate hardness TCH ranged from 2.4 to 8.5mg/l. Corrosion is accelerated from a combination of any two factors such as high concentration of H2S >2.0mg/l; DO >2mg/l; pH 500mg/l; TDS >1000mg/l and HCO-3 >50mg/l. Encrustation is promoted when TCH >100mg/l; pH>7; Mn >0.1 and Fe >0.3mg/l. Interpretation of these CEIP analytical results based on these background values indicate that the groundwater is acidic. Acidic water causes corrosion of pumps, pipes and screens made of iron and steel. On the other hand, encrustation is never a major problem, although it is not completely absent in the area. The high total iron and manganese content greater than the above threshold values are the causes of encrustation in some localities while the high acidity, dissolved oxygen and bicarbonate are the causes of corrosion in Calabar area. Ways of minimizing the problems of corrosion and encrustation in the water industry of Calabar area have been suggested. Keywords : Corrosion, Encrustation, Index Parameter, Calabar. Global Journal of Geological Sciences Vol. 6 (1) 2008: pp. 1-8

The iodide contents in 389 ground-water-tapping plants of the county are compared with the geological character of the aquifer, the carbonate and non-carbonate hardness and the nitrate and chloride contents of the waters. 54% of the plants have I-concentrations of 3 … 7 μg/l. In the air-covered ground-water (hardness quotient 2.8) 2 … 50 μg/l I are contained. In general, the I-content increases with the carbonate hardness, a connection with till existing. Therefore, ground-waters of the Miocene have relatively low salt- and I-contents. Geogenic salt influences in the form of NaCl increase the I-contents to 50 … 100 μg/l. Anthropogenic influences in the residential area and due to waste increase the Cl−- and I−-concentrations. There were not detected any dependences between the I- and NO3-contents.