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Aging is a physiological and progressive phenomenon in all organisms' life cycle, characterized by the accumulation of degenerative processes triggered by several alterations within molecular pathways. These changes compromise cell fate, resulting in the loss of functions in tissues throughout the body, including the brain. Physiological brain aging has been linked to structural and functional alterations, as well as to an increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Post-transcriptional RNA modifications modulate mRNA coding properties, stability, translatability, expanding the coding capacity of the genome, and are involved in all cellular processes. Among mRNA post-transcriptional modifications, the A-to-I RNA editing, m6A RNA Methylation and Alternative Splicing play a critical role in all the phases of a neuronal cell life cycle and alterations in their mechanisms of action significantly contribute to aging and neurodegeneration. Here we review our current understanding of the contribution of A-to-I RNA editing, m6A RNA Methylation, and Alternative Splicing to physiological brain aging process and neurodegenerative diseases., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interests All the authors declare no conflict of interests., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The FcγRII (CD32) ligands are IgFc fragments and pentraxins. The existence of additional ligands is unknown. We engineered T cells with human chimeric receptors resulting from the fusion between CD32 extracellular portion and transmembrane CD8α linked to CD28/ζ chain intracellular moiety (CD32-CR). Transduced T cells recognized three breast cancer (BC) and one colon cancer cell line among 15 tested in the absence of targeting antibodies. Sensitive BC cell conjugation with CD32-CR T cells induced CD32 polarization and down-regulation, CD107a release, mutual elimination, and proinflammatory cytokine production unaffected by human IgGs but enhanced by cetuximab. CD32-CR T cells protected immunodeficient mice from subcutaneous growth of MDA-MB-468 BC cells. RNAseq analysis identified a 42 gene fingerprint predicting BC cell sensitivity and favorable outcomes in advanced BC. ICAM1 was a major regulator of CD32-CR T cell-mediated cytotoxicity. CD32-CR T cells may help identify cell surface CD32 ligand(s) and novel prognostically relevant transcriptomic signatures and develop innovative BC treatments., (© 2022 Sconocchia et al.)

EV produced by tumour cells carry a diverse population of proteins, lipids, DNA, and RNA molecules throughout the body and appear to play an important role in the overall development of the disease state, according to growing data. Gliomas account for a sizable fraction of all primary brain tumours and the vast majority of brain malignancies. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a kind of grade IV glioma that has a very dismal prognosis despite advancements in diagnostic methods and therapeutic options. The authors discuss advances in understanding the function of extracellular vesicles (EVs), in overall glioma growth, as well as how recent research is uncovering the utility of EVs in glioma diagnostics, prognostic and therapeutics approaches., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

KRAS mutations hinder therapeutic efficacy of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-specific monoclonal antibodies cetuximab and panitumumab-based immunotherapy of EGFR+ cancers. Although cetuximab inhibits KRAS-mutated cancer cell growth in vitro by natural killer (NK) cell-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), KRAS-mutated colorectal carcinoma (CRC) cells escape NK cell immunosurveillance in vivo. To overcome this limitation, we used cetuximab and panitumumab to redirect Fcγ chimeric receptor (CR) T cells against KRAS-mutated HCT116 colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. We compared four polymorphic Fcγ-CR constructs including CD16 158F -CR, CD16 158V -CR, CD32 131H -CR, and CD32 131R -CR transduced into T cells by retroviral vectors. Percentages of transduced T cells expressing CD32 131H -CR (83.5 ± 9.5) and CD32 131R -CR (77.7 ± 13.2) were significantly higher than those expressing with CD16 158F -CR (30.3 ± 10.2) and CD16 158V -CR (51.7 ± 13.7) (p < 0.003). CD32 131R -CR T cells specifically bound soluble cetuximab and panitumumab. However, only CD16 158V -CR T cells released high levels of interferon gamma (IFNγ = 1,145.5 pg/ml ±16.5 pg/ml, p < 0.001) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα = 614 pg/ml ± 21 pg/ml, p < 0.001) upon incubation with cetuximab-opsonized HCT116 cells. Moreover, only CD16 158V -CR T cells combined with cetuximab killed HCT116 cells and A549 KRAS-mutated cells in vitro. CD16 158V -CR T cells also effectively controlled subcutaneous growth of HCT116 cells in CB17-SCID mice in vivo. Thus, CD16 158V -CR T cells combined with cetuximab represent useful reagents to develop innovative EGFR+KRAS-mutated CRC immunotherapies., (© 2019 UICC.)

Cetuximab and panitumumab bind the human epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Although the chimeric cetuximab (IgG1) triggers antibody-dependent-cellular-cytotoxicity (ADCC) of EGFR positive target cells, panitumumab (a human IgG2) does not. The inability of panitumumab to trigger ADCC reflects the poor binding affinity of human IgG2 Fc for the FcγRIII (CD16) on natural killer (NK) cells. However, both human IgG1 and IgG2 bind the FcγRII (CD32A) to a similar extent. Our study compares the ability of T cells, engineered with a novel low-affinity CD32A 131R -chimeric receptor (CR), and those engineered with the low-affinity CD16 158F -CR T cells, in eliminating EGFR positive epithelial cancer cells (ECCs) in combination with cetuximab or panitumumab. After T-cell transduction, the percentage of CD32A 131R -CR T cells was 74 ± 10%, whereas the percentage of CD16 158F -CR T cells was 46 ± 15%. Only CD32A 131R -CR T cells bound panitumumab. CD32A 131R -CR T cells combined with the mAb 8.26 (anti-CD32) and CD16 158F -CR T cells combined with the mAb 3g8 (anti-CD16) eliminated colorectal carcinoma (CRC), HCT116 FcγR+ cells, in a reverse ADCC assay in vitro. Crosslinking of CD32A 131R -CR on T cells by cetuximab or panitumumab and CD16 158F -CR T cells by cetuximab induced elimination of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-468 cells, and the secretion of interferon gamma and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Neither cetuximab nor panitumumab induced Fcγ-CR T antitumor activity against Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS)-mutated HCT116, nonsmall-cell-lung-cancer, A549 and TNBC, MDA-MB-231 cells. The ADCC of Fcγ-CR T cells was associated with the overexpression of EGFR on ECCs. In conclusion, CD32A 131R -CR T cells are efficiently redirected by cetuximab or panitumumab against breast cancer cells overexpressing EGFR., (© 2019 UICC.)

The chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T cell) immunotherapy currently represents a hot research trend and it is expected to revolutionize the field of cancer therapy. Promising outcomes have been achieved using CAR-T cell therapy for haematological malignancies. Despite encouraging results, several challenges still pose eminent hurdles before being fully recognized. Directing CAR-T cells to target a single tumour associated antigen (TAA) as the case in haematological malignancies might be much simpler than targeting the extensive inhibitory microenvironments associated with solid tumours. This review focuses on the basic principles involved in development of CAR-T cells, emphasizing the differences between humoral IgG, T-cell receptors, CAR and Fcγ-CR constructs. It also highlights the complex inhibitory network that is usually associated with solid tumours, and tackles recent advances in the clinical studies that have provided great hope for the future use of CAR-T cell immunotherapy. While current Fcγ-CR T cell immunotherapy is in pre-clinical stage, is expected to provide a sound therapeutic approach to add to existing classical chemo- and radio-therapeutic modalities., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

For many years, disappointing results have been generated by many investigations, which have utilized a variety of immunologic strategies to enhance the ability of a patient's immune system to recognize and eliminate malignant cells. However, in recent years, immunotherapy has been used successfully for the treatment of hematologic and solid malignancies. The impressive clinical responses observed in many types of cancer have convinced even the most skeptical clinical oncologists that a patient's immune system can recognize and reject his tumor if appropriate strategies are implemented. The success immunotherapy is due to the development of at least three therapeutic strategies. They include tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), T cell checkpoint blockade, and TAA-specific chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) T cell-based immunotherapy. However, the full realization of the therapeutic potential of these approaches requires the development of strategies to counteract and overcome some limitations. They include off-target toxicity and mechanisms of cancer immune evasion, which obstacle the successful clinical application of mAbs and CAR T cell-based immunotherapies. Thus, we and others have developed the Fc gamma chimeric receptors (Fcγ-CRs)-based strategy. Like CARs, Fcγ-CRs are composed of an intracellular tail resulting from the fusion of a co-stimulatory molecule with the T cell receptor ζ chain. In contrast, the extracellular CAR single-chain variable fragment (scFv), which recognizes the targeted TAA, has been replaced with the extracellular portion of the FcγRIIIA (CD16). Fcγ-CR T cells have a few intriguing features. First, given in combination with mAbs, Fcγ-CR T cells mediate anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo by an antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity mechanism. Second, CD16-CR T cells can target multiple cancer types provided that TAA-specific mAbs with the appropriate specificity are available. Third, the off-target effect of CD16-CR T cells may be controlled by withdrawing the mAb administration. The goal of this manuscript was threefold. First, we review the current state-of-the-art of preclinical CD16-CR T cell technology. Second, we describe its in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity. Finally, we compare the advantages and limitations of the CD16-CR T cell technology with those of CAR T cell methodology.

Background Aims: Chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) designed for adoptive immunotherapy need to achieve two functions: antigen recognition and triggering of the lytic machinery of reprogrammed effector cells. Cytotoxic T cells have been engineered with FcγRIII (CD16) chimeric molecules to be redirected against malignant cells by monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). These cells have been proven to mediate granule-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, but it is not clear whether they can also kill malignant cells by a granule-independent mechanism of cell cytotoxicity., Methods: We engineered a CD16A-CAR equipped with the extracellular CD16A, the hinge spacer and the transmembrane region of CD8, and the ζ-chain of the T-cell receptor/CD3 complex in tandem with the CD28 co-stimulatory signal transducer module. The CD16A-CAR was expressed and functionally tested in the MD45 cell line, a murine T-cell hybridoma with a defective granular exocytosis pathway but capable of killing target cells by a Fas ligand-mediated lysis., Results: Our results indicate that in vitro cross-linking of CD16A-CAR on MD45 cells by the Fc fragment of mAb opsonized tumor cells induced interleukin-2 release and granule-independent cellular cytotoxicity., Conclusions: We conclude that strategies aimed to implement the therapeutic functions of mAbs used in the clinic with T-dependent immune responses driven by engineered T cells expressing FcγR-CAR can boost the antitumor efficacy of mAbs used in the clinic., (Copyright © 2015 International Society for Cellular Therapy. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells induce, in vitro, NK cell abnormalities (NKCAs) including apoptosis and activating receptor down-regulation. The potential negative impact of AML cells on the therapeutic efficacy of NK cell-based strategies prompted us to analyze the mechanisms underlying NKCAs and to develop approaches to protect NK cells from NKCAs. NKCA induction by the AML leukemia cells target a subpopulation of peripheral blood NK cells and is interleukin-2 independent but is abrogated by a long-term culture of NK (LTNK) cells at 37°C. LTNK cells displayed a significantly enhanced ability to damage AML cells in vitro and inhibited the subcutaneous growth of ML-2 cells grafted into CB17 SCID mice. Actinomycin D restored the susceptibility of LTNK cells to NKCAs while TAPI-0, a functional analog of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) 3, inhibits ML-2 cell-induced NKCAs suggesting that the generation of NK cell resistance to NKCAs involves RNA transcription and metalloproteinase (MPP) inactivation. This conclusion is supported by the reduced susceptibility to AML cell-induced NKCAs of LTNK cells in which TIMP3 gene and protein are over-expressed. This information may contribute to the rational design of targeted strategies to enhance the efficacy of NK cell-based-immunotherapy of AML with haploidentical NK cells.

Increasing evidence suggests that HLA-DRB1 alleles reduce or increase the risk of developing ulcerative colitis-associated colorectal carcinoma (CRC) tumors. However, the role of HLA-DRB1 locus on the susceptibility to develop CRC tumor, in the absence of a history of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), is unclear. The aim of our study was to determine whether HLA-DRB1 alleles are associated with IBD-independent CRC tumor. HLA-DRB1 allele polymorphisms were identified by sequence-based typing method in 53 CRC patients and 57 sex- and age-matched healthy Caucasian controls. Pearson's chi-squared analysis with Yate's correction or Fisher's exact test with Bonferroni's correction, as appropriate, were used to compare the allele frequency (AF) differences of HLA-DRB1 in patients and controls. A total of 29 HLA-DRB1 alleles were recognized. A detailed study of these alleles allowed to identify DRB1*13:01 and DRB1*11:01 alleles that were significantly associated with an increased and reduced risk to develop CRC tumor, respectively. AF of DRB1*13:01, in CRC patients, was significantly higher than that of healthy controls, even following Bonferroni's correction (p = 0.029). In contrast, the presence of the DRB1*11:01 allele was negatively associated with CRC tumor as evidenced by the significantly lower AF in CRC patients than that of healthy controls (p = 0.005). However, following Bonferroni's correction, the AF of DRB*11:01 lost its statistical significance. These results suggest that HLA-DRB1*13:01 allele could be a potential marker for predicting genetic susceptibility to CRC tumor. In contrast, the protective role of DRB1*11:01 remains unclear., (© 2014 UICC.)

Liver has a principal role in glucose regulation and lipids homeostasis. It is under a complex control by substrates such as hormones, nutrients, and neuronal impulses. Insulin promotes glycogen synthesis, lipogenesis, and lipoprotein synthesis and inhibits gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and VLDL secretion by modifying the expression and enzymatic activity of specific molecules. To understand the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to metabolic liver disease, we analyzed liver protein patterns expressed in a mouse model of diabetes by proteomic approaches. We used insulin receptor-knockout (IR(-/-)) and heterozygous (IR(+/-)) mice as a murine model of liver metabolic dysfunction associated with diabetic ketoacidosis and insulin resistance. We evaluated liver fatty acid levels by microscopic examination and protein expression profiles by orthogonal experimental strategies using protein 2-DE MALDI-TOF/TOF and peptic nLC-MS/MS shotgun profiling. Identified proteins were then loaded into Ingenuity Pathways Analysis to find possible molecular networks. Twenty-eight proteins identified by 2-DE analysis and 24 identified by nLC-MS/MS shotgun were differentially expressed among the three genotypes. Bioinformatic analysis revealed a central role of high-mobility group box 1/2 and huntigtin never reported before in association with metabolic and related liver disease. A different modulation of these proteins in both blood and hepatic tissue further suggests their role in these processes. These results provide new insight into pathophysiology of insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis and could be useful in identifying novel biomarkers to predict risk for diabetes and its complications., (Copyright © 2015 the American Physiological Society.)

Diabetic hyperglycaemia causes endothelial dysfunction mainly by impairing endothelial nitric oxide (NO) production. Moreover, hyperglycaemia activates several noxious cellular pathways including apoptosis, increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and diminishing Na(+)-K(+) ATPase activity which exacerbate vascular damage. Serum glucocorticoid kinase (SGK)-1, a member of the serine/threonine kinases, plays a pivotal role in regulating NO production through inducible NO synthase activation and other cellular mechanisms. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate the protective role of SGK-1 against hyperglycaemia in human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs). We used retrovirus to infect HUVECs with either SGK-1, SGK-1Δ60 (lacking of the N-60 amino acids-increase SGK-1 activity) or SGK-1Δ60KD (kinase-dead constructs). We tested our hypothesis in vitro after high glucose and glucosamine incubation. Increase in SGK-1 expression and activity (SGK-1Δ60) resulted in higher production of NO, inhibition of ROS synthesis and lower apoptosis in endothelial cell after either hyperglycaemia or glucosamine treatments. Moreover, in this study, we showed increased GLUT-1 membrane translocation and Na(+)-K(+) ATPase activity in cell infected with SGK-1Δ60 construct. These results suggest that as in endothelial cells, an increased SGK-1 activity and expression reduces oxidative stress, improves cell survival and restores insulin-mediated NO production after different noxae stimuli. Therefore, SGK-1 may represent a specific target to further develop novel therapeutic options against diabetic vascular disease.

Enhanced oxidative stress contributes to the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications. Peroxiredoxin 6 (PRDX6) is a key regulator of cellular redox balance, with the peculiar ability to neutralize peroxides, peroxynitrite, and phospholipid hydroperoxides. In the current study, we aimed to define the role of PRDX6 in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes (T2D) using PRDX6 knockout (-/-) mice. Glucose and insulin responses were evaluated respectively by intraperitoneal glucose and insulin tolerance tests. Peripheral insulin sensitivity was analyzed by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp, and molecular tools were used to investigate insulin signaling. Moreover, inflammatory and lipid parameters were evaluated. We demonstrated that PRDX6(-/-) mice developed a phenotype similar to early-stage T2D caused by both reduced glucose-dependent insulin secretion and increased insulin resistance. Impaired insulin signaling was present in PRDX6(-/-) mice, leading to reduction of muscle glucose uptake. Morphological and ultrastructural changes were observed in islets of Langerhans and livers of mutant animals, as well as altered plasma lipid profiles and inflammatory parameters. In conclusion, we demonstrated that PRDX6 is a key mediator of overt hyperglycemia in T2D glucose metabolism, opening new perspectives for targeted therapeutic strategies in diabetes care., (© 2014 by the American Diabetes Association. Readers may use this article as long as the work is properly cited, the use is educational and not for profit, and the work is not altered.)

Recent evidence suggests that natural killer (NK) cells are typically defective in infiltrating solid tumors, with the exception of gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST). Interestingly, however, infrequently infiltrating NK cells do not appear to have a direct effect on tumor progression. Here, prompted by the recent evidence that NK cell and T cell crosstalk may trigger, or enhance, tumor antigen-specific immune responses, we have tested the clinical significance of this reciprocal signaling. To this end, a tissue microarray constructed with 1410 colorectal carcinoma (CRC) patient specimens was stained with NK and T cell antigen-specific monoclonal antibodies, utilizing the immunoperoxidase staining technique. Cut-off scores for positive (>4 NK cells) and negative (≤4 NK cells) NK cell CRC patient samples were determined using receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Using this approach, NK cells were detected in 423 (30%) of the 1410 CRC specimens evaluated. The number of NK cells was >4 in only 132 (9%) of CRC samples. Correlation of the immunohistochemical staining results together with analysis of the clinical course of the disease revealed that the infiltration of colorectal tumors with both NK cells and CD8+ T cells is associated with prolonged patient survival. In contrast, infiltration of tumors with NK cells in combination with CD3 + and CD4 + T lymphocytes had no detectable effect on the clinical course of the disease. These results suggest that NK cell and CD8 + T cell crosstalk in the tumor microenvironment may benefit patient outcome and further, that the enumeration of infiltrating NK and CD8 + T cells in CRC tumors may provide useful prognostic information.

The goal of this study was to determine the frequency of HLA class II antigen expression in colorectal carcinoma (CRC) tumors, its association with the clinical course of the disease, and the underlying mechanism(s). Two tissue microarrays constructed with 220 and 778 CRC tumors were stained with HLA-DR, DQ, and DP antigen-specific monoclonal antibody LGII-612.14, using the immunoperoxidase staining technique. The immunohistochemical staining results were correlated with the clinical course of the disease. The functional role of HLA class II antigens expressed on CRC cells was analyzed by investigating their in vitro interactions with immune cells. HLA class II antigens were expressed in about 25% of the 220 and 21% of the 778 tumors analyzed with an overall frequency of 23%. HLA class II antigens were detected in 19% of colorectal adenomas. Importantly, the percentage of stained cells and the staining intensity were significantly lower than those detected in CRC tumors. However, HLA class II antigen staining was weakly detected only in 5.4% of 37 normal mucosa tissues. HLA class II antigen expression was associated with a favorable clinical course of the disease. In vitro stimulation with interferon gamma (IFNγ) induced HLA class II antigen expression on two of the four CRC cell lines tested. HLA class II antigen expression on CRC cells triggered interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production by resting monocytes. HLA class II antigen expression in CRC tumors is a favorable prognostic marker. This association may reflect stimulation of IL-1β production by monocytes.