Search

Abstract Dried yellow chili is highly appreciated by consumers due to its excellent quality and flavor. The quality of products is determined by the drying and storage methods. In this study, dried yellow chilis were processed by natural air drying and hot air drying methods and then stored under three conditions: ambient temperature, ambient temperature with light avoidance, and at 10 °C with light avoidance for 12 months. The changes in the bioactive compounds during this period were analyzed attempting to reveal correlations between the different treatments and these compounds, with the aim of providing references for maintaining the bioactive compounds of pepper products. The results showed that samples treated with hot air had higher levels of fatty acids, resulting in a more pronounced flavor. During storage, samples stored at 10 °C with light avoidance were more effective in preserving soluble solids, total protein content, total phenols, capsaicinoids and most fatty acids.

Dried yellow chili is highly appreciated by consumers due to its excellent quality and flavor. The quality of products is determined by the drying and storage methods. In this study, dried yellow chilis were processed by natural air drying and hot air drying methods and then stored under three conditions: ambient temperature, ambient temperature with light avoidance, and at 10 °C with light avoidance for 12 months. The changes in the bioactive compounds during this period were analyzed attempting to reveal correlations between the different treatments and these compounds, with the aim of providing references for maintaining the bioactive compounds of pepper products. The results showed that samples treated with hot air had higher levels of fatty acids, resulting in a more pronounced flavor. During storage, samples stored at 10 °C with light avoidance were more effective in preserving soluble solids, total protein content, total phenols, capsaicinoids and most fatty acids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vanillin is a key organoleptic component in vanilla, one of the most important natural flavors in the industry. The limited supply of natural vanilla, extracted from cured vanilla beans, elevates the commercial value of 'natural'‐labeled vanillin, producible by microbial conversion of natural precursors such as ferulic acid, eugenol, isoeugenol, lignin, and glucose. However, cellular toxicity and undesirable overoxidation of vanillin remain challenges to the microbial methods. Here, we developed a one‐pot enzymatic conversion of capsaicinoids to vanillin by retracing the biosynthetic pathway found in Capsicum plants. The enzyme cascade consists of the hydrolysis of capsaicinoids by immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica (CALB) and the oxidative deamination of the resulting vanillylamine by ω‐transaminase from Paracoccus denitrificans (PDTA). Process optimization of individual enzyme reactions was conducted on an analytical scale, enabling>95% reaction yield of vanillin from capsaicinoids in the one‐pot cascade reaction without undesirable accumulation of the oxidation byproduct and the inhibitory reaction intermediate, i. e. vanillic acid and vanillylamine, respectively. To verify practical applicability, we performed a preparative‐scale reaction starting with 1.75 g capsaicinoids and 2.75 g sodium pyruvate at 10 mg/mL CALB and 3 μM PDTA, leading to an 81% reaction yield and a 57% isolation yield. This study is, to the best of our knowledge, the first demonstration of one‐pot production of vanillin from capsaicinoids, which might pave the way for cost‐effective and sustainable access to natural‐labeled vanillin from a renewable feedstock readily available from Capsicum fruits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Pungent capsaicinoid is synthesized only in chili pepper (Capsicum spp.). The production of vanillylamine from vanillin is a unique reaction in the capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway. Although putative aminotransferase (pAMT) has been isolated as the vanillylamine synthase gene, it is unclear how Capsicum acquired pAMT. Here, we present a phylogenetic overview of pAMT and its homologs. The Capsicum genome contained 5 homologs, including pAMT, CaGABA‐T1, CaGABA‐T3, and two pseudogenes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that pAMT is a member of the Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA‐Ts. Comparative genome analysis found that multiple copies of GABA‐T exist in a specific Solanaceae genomic region, and the cytoplasmic GABA‐Ts other than pAMT are located in the region. The cytoplasmic GABA‐T was phylogenetically close to pseudo‐GABA‐T harboring a plastid transit peptide (pseudo‐GABA‐T3). This suggested that Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA‐Ts occurred via duplication of a chloroplastic GABA‐T ancestor and subsequent loss of the plastid transit signal. The cytoplasmic GABA‐T may have been translocated from the specific Solanaceae genomic region during Capsicum divergence, resulting in the current pAMT locus. A recombinant protein assay demonstrated that pAMT had higher vanillylamine synthase activity than those of other plant GABA‐Ts. pAMT was expressed exclusively in the placental septum of mature green fruit, whereas tomato orthologs SlGABA‐T2/4 exhibit a ubiquitous expression pattern in plants. These findings suggested that both the increased catalytic efficiency and transcriptional changes in pAMT may have contributed to establish vanillylamine synthesis in the capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway. This study provides insights into the establishment of pungency in the evolution of chili peppers. Significance Statement: Chili pepper vanillylamine synthase (pAMT) in capsaicin biosynthesis pathway belongs to the Solanaceae cytoplasmic GABA‐Ts, which originated via duplication of a chloroplastic ancestor and exhibits higher catalytic efficiency and placenta‐specific expression, compared with other close‐related GABA‐Ts. This study presents an intriguing case of how a primary metabolism enzyme evolved into a key enzyme that contributes to lineage‐specific secondary metabolite biosynthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports the synthesis and characterization of a limited number of novel boron-containing and boron-omitted capsaicinoids, providing 12 unique substrates. We have previously reported boron-containing capsaicinoids that showed improved bioactivity compared to capsaicin itself but have yet to test a series of analogous boron-omitted substrates as a direct comparison. The boron-containing capsaicinoids bear a pinacolboronate ester (Bpin) group, which was incorporated using an iridium-catalyzed hydroboration reaction. We report that although nearly all compounds display moderate cytotoxic activity that bests that of capsaicin against human colon HCT116 cancer cells, the activity of our boron-omitted capsaicinoids surpasses that of the boron-containing analogues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Red chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), which belongs to the Solanaceae family, contains a variety of phytochemicals with health-promoting properties including capsaicinoids, phenolics and fatty acids. Red chili pepper is one of the most consumed vegetables in Korea and occupies the largest cultivated area among spices. In this study, the ethanolic extracts from two Korean local cultivars, namely Subicho and Eumseong, were analyzed using a hybrid trapped ion mobility Q-TOF mass spectrometer equipped with a UPLC system, and their phytochemical profiles were then compared with those of a common phytophthora disease-resistant cultivar called Dokbulwang, which is extensively used for red chili pepper powder in public spaces across Korea. Utilizing high-resolution ion-mobility Q-TOF MS analysis, 458 and 192 compounds were identified from the three different red chili peppers in positive and negative ion modes, respectively, by matching with a reference spectral library. Principal component analysis revealed clear distinctions among the three cultivars, allowing us to identify key phytochemical components responsible for discriminating the local cultivars from the public cultivar. Furthermore, the assessment of total flavonoid, phenolic, and antioxidant activity in the red pepper extracts, highlighted their diverse molecular and chemical profiles. Despite the higher total flavonoid and phenolic content values observed in the public cultivar, the radical scavenging rate was higher in the local cultivars, particularly in Subicho. This suggest the presence of stronger antioxidant compounds in the local cultivar, indicating their potential health benefits due to their rich content of bioactive compounds. Notably, the local cultivars exhibited significantly higher proportions of organic compounds (more than four times) and terpenoids (more than two times) compared to the public cultivar. Specifically, higher levels of five major capsaicinoid compounds were found in the local cultivars when compared to the public cultivar. The observed disparities in phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities indicate the molecular diversity present among these cultivars. Further exploration of the bioactive compounds in these local cultivars could prove invaluable for the development of native crops, potentially leading to the discovery of novel sources of bioactive molecules for various applications in health and agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key message: The transcript level of alcohol acyltransferase 1 (AAT1) may be the main factor influencing the variations in volatile esters that characterizing the fruity/exotic aroma of pepper fruit. Volatile esters are key components for characterizing the fruity/exotic aroma of pepper (Capsicum spp.) fruit. In general, the volatile ester content in the fruit is the consequence of a delicate balance between their synthesis by alcohol acyltransferases (AATs) and degradation by carboxylesterases (CXEs). However, the precise role of these families of enzymes with regard to volatile ester content remains unexplored in Capsicum. In this study, we found that the volatile ester content was relatively low in C. annuum and much higher in C. chinense, particularly in pungent varieties. Additionally, fruits collected from multiple non-pungent C. chinense varieties, which harbor loss-of-function mutations in capsaicinoid biosynthetic genes, acyltransferase (Pun1), putative aminotransferase (pAMT), or putative ketoacyl-ACP reductase (CaKR1) were analyzed. The volatile ester contents of non-pungent C. chinense varieties (pamt/pamt) were equivalent to those of pungent varieties, but their levels were significantly lower in non-pungent NMCA30036 (pun12/pun12) and C. chinense (Cakr1/Cakr1) varieties. Multiple AAT-like sequences were identified from the pepper genome sequences, whereas only one CXE-like sequence was identified. Among these, AAT1, AAT2, and CXE1 were isolated from fruits of C. chinense and C. annuum. Gene expression analysis revealed that the AAT1 transcript level is a potential determinant of fruit volatile ester variations in Capsicum. Furthermore, enzymatic assays demonstrated that AAT1 is responsible for the biosynthesis of volatile esters in pepper fruit. Identification of a key gene for aroma biosynthesis in pepper fruit will provide a theoretical basis for the development of molecular tools for flavor improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pepper (Capsicum spp.) holds significant value as both a vegetable and a spice crop cultivated across the world, belonging to the genus Capsicum of the Solanaceae family. In addition to its culinary and spice applications, pepper finds extensive utility in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics sectors. Breeding pepper plants with improved nutritional qualities will require a comprehensive understanding of biosynthetic pathway genes and their regulatory functions. Advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have facilitated the identification of genes involved in carotenoid, anthocyanin, and capsaicinoid biosynthesis, providing opportunities for the development of new pepper cultivars with tailored levels of desired metabolites. Further advances in high-throughput sequencing methods and computational analyses will allow more efficient and accurate identification and functional characterization of genes and regulatory elements participating in biosynthesis and regulation of these traits. This review discusses the present understanding and avenues for further investigation into the genetic and molecular control of carotenoid, anthocyanin, and capsaicinoid biosynthetic pathways in pepper.

In this study, the effect of emulsifier type, i.e. whey protein versus Tween 80, on the digestion behaviour of emulsion gels containing capsaicinoids (CAPs) was examined. The results indicate that the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel was emptied out significantly faster during gastric digestion than the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel. The Tween-80-coated oil droplets appeared to be in a flocculated state in the emulsion gel, had no interactions with the protein matrix and were easily released from the protein matrix during gastric digestion. The whey-protein-coated oil droplets showed strong interactions with the protein matrix, and the presence of thick protein layer around the oil droplets protected their liberation during gastric digestion. During intestinal digestion, the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel had a lower extent of lipolysis than the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel, probably because the interfacial layer formed by Tween 80 was resistance to displacement by bile salts, and/or because Tween 80 formed interfacial complexes with bile salts/lipolytic enzymes. Because of the softer structure of the CAP-loaded Tween 80 emulsion gel, the gel particles were broken down much faster and the oil droplets were liberated from the protein matrix more readily than for the CAP-loaded whey protein emulsion gel during intestinal digestion; this promoted the release of CAP molecules from the gel. In addition, the Tween 80 molecules displaced from the interface would participate in the formation of mixed micelles and would help to solubilize the released CAP molecules, leading to improved bioaccessibility of CAP. Information obtained from this study could be useful in designing functional foods for the delivery of lipophilic bioactive compounds.

In this paper, rice milk-based beads were fabricated through gelation in a calcium chloride solution. Green extraction of chili pepper in water/ethanol was conducted in order to obtain powder extract (PE) rich in apigenin C-pentosyl-C-hexoside, capsaicin, and dihydrocapsaicin. The effect of capsaicinoids loading on beads' properties was evaluated in terms of morphological and physical properties. Swelling phenomena and diameter variation of beads were studied as a function of time proving correspondence with the PE amount. The effect of ionic strength on bead swelling was considered. Kinetic studies of PE release were conducted to investigate the release profiles, which were modeled through a modified Baker and Lonsdale model by considering the change in mean diameter over time. The effect of PE loading was then correlated to the growth of Cynodon dactylon weed through in vivo tests. The results corroborate the performances of the encapsulated PE to be used as natural and green herbicide release systems able to inhibit the growth and the proliferation of weeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blood loss resulting from accidents or surgery is a worrying health problem. This is because hemorrhage can occur and cause death. Therefore, the development of safe and effective hemostatic materials is important. Hemostatic agents (Ha) made from the composite of chitosan, gelatin, and glycerol mixtures and capsaicinoids (Cap) at various compositions 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 12 wt%. The films forming were prepared by casting with the aim of obtaining an environmentally friendly material for intraoperative hemostasis. The characterizations of the samples were performed by physicochemical, morphological, hemostasis test, functional groups, antibacterial, and mechanical properties were evaluated. The samples received are flexible and transparent. It was found that 6 wt% Cap showed the optimization in stopping bleeding, and Cap content of 12 wt% was optimized for antibacterial properties both Staphylococcusaureus and Escherichia coli. The results show that the addition Cap into chitosan/gelatin film based Ha has high potential as a hemostatic product, and there is a very interesting trend in the development of hemostatic and antibacterial materials in the future. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis is the property of Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Key message: CAP biosynthesis in the pericarp of chili pepper fruits occurs with an ambiguous boundary in the placental septum and pericarp. Capsaicinoid (CAP) is a pungent ingredient of chili pepper fruits. Generally, CAP biosynthesis is limited to the placental septum of fruits, but it has been reported that its biosynthesis occurs even in the pericarp of some extremely pungent varieties, resulting in a substantial increase in total content. To examine the mechanism of CAP biosynthesis in the pericarp, comparative transcriptome analysis of a variety that produces CAP in the pericarp (MY) and a variety that does not (HB) was carried out. RNA-seq revealed that 2264 genes were differentially expressed in the MY pericarp compared with the HB pericarp. PCA analysis and GO enrichment analysis indicated that the MY pericarp has a gene expression profile more like placental septum than the HB pericarp. The gene expression of CAP biosynthesis-related genes in the MY pericarp changed coordinately with the placental septum during fruit development. In most Capsicum accessions including HB, the distribution of slender epidermal cells producing CAP was limited to the placental septum, and the morphological boundary between the placental septum and pericarp was clear. In some extremely pungent varieties such as MY, slender epidermal cells ranged from the placental septum to the pericarp region, and the pericarp was morphologically similar to the placental septum, such as the absence of large sub-epidermal cells and abundant spaces in the parenchymal tissue. Our data suggest that CAP biosynthesis in the pericarp occurred with an ambiguous boundary in the placental septum and pericarp. These findings contribute to further enhancement of CAP production in chili pepper fruits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, rice milk-based beads were fabricated through gelation in a calcium chloride solution. Green extraction of chili pepper in water/ethanol was conducted in order to obtain powder extract (PE) rich in apigenin C-pentosyl-C-hexoside, capsaicin, and dihydrocapsaicin. The effect of capsaicinoids loading on beads’ properties was evaluated in terms of morphological and physical properties. Swelling phenomena and diameter variation of beads were studied as a function of time proving correspondence with the PE amount. The effect of ionic strength on bead swelling was considered. Kinetic studies of PE release were conducted to investigate the release profiles, which were modeled through a modified Baker and Lonsdale model by considering the change in mean diameter over time. The effect of PE loading was then correlated to the growth of Cynodon dactylon weed through in vivo tests. The results corroborate the performances of the encapsulated PE to be used as natural and green herbicide release systems able to inhibit the growth and the proliferation of weeds.

Introduction: Proton (1H) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy based analytical method for the quantification of capsaicin (major pungent principle of chili) has certain advantages including short data acquisition time and better structural authentication. Earlier NMR methods are associated with either of the bottlenecks such as low or lack of information on the sensitivity and scope for the quantification of total capsaicinoid. Objective: To develop a sensitive 1H quantitative NMR (qNMR) technique for capsaicin and total capsaicinoid in dry chili and chili oleoresin and to demonstrate its applicability in a real sample set. Method: A 1H qNMR method was developed using benzene as the internal standard for the quantification of capsaicin (terminal methyl signal) as well as total capsaicinoid (benzyl methylene signal) in dry chili and oleoresin and validated in terms of specificity, linearity, sensitivity, accuracy and precision. Results: The developed 1H qNMR method was specific, sensitive (limit of detection 4.4 μg/mL and limit of quantitation 14.8 μg/mL), linear in the range 0.083–8.33 mg/mL of capsaicin, accurate and precise. The credibility of the developed method was showcased in the morpho‐chemical characterisation of commercially available 15 chili land races from northeast India. The analysis identified the land races with a wide range of capsaicin (trace to 1.49% in the dry fruit and trace to 6.21% in the oleoresin w/w) and oleoresin content (3.35–26.78% w/w). Conclusion: The standardized 1H qNMR method facilitated the findings of chemical basis for the selection of chili land races from this region, capable of producing high‐yielding oleoresin with intended degree of pungency. A standardized 1H quantitative NMR (qNMR)method was developed for the quantification of capsaicin and total capsaicinoid in dry chili and chili oleoresin. The developed method was sensitive with a limit of detection 4.4 μg/mL and limit of quantitation 14.8 μg/mL for capsaicin. The applicability of the developed method was shown through the morpho‐chemical characterisation of commercially available 15 chili landraces from northeast India. The study identified a wide variability in oleoresin and capsaicin content among the studied landraces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chili peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) are widely consumed worldwide, and the health benefits of capsaicinoids (the active compounds in chili peppers) have been suggested. However, the link between capsaicinoid consumption and the risk of certain cancers remains controversial. Capsaicinoid consumption level is an important determinant of its potential health effects. This study sought to construct a database of capsaicinoid contents in foods commonly consumed in Korea (CAPKO) to enable a more reliable estimation of capsaicinoid intake. Capsaicinoid‐containing foods were identified from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey datasets and divided into eight categories: chili peppers, red pepper powder, hot sauce, kimchi, salted seafood, red pepper paste, instant noodles, and convenience foods other than instant noodles. The capsaicinoid contents of primary capsaicinoid sources (chili peppers, red pepper powder, and hot sauce) were estimated from the literature. For the remaining food categories, the contents of primary capsaicinoid sources were identified from standardized recipes (kimchi) or food labels (salted seafood, red pepper paste, and convenience foods other than instant noodles). Then, capsaicinoid contents were estimated by calculation using the identified capsaicinoid source contents and the estimated capsaicinoid content in these sources. This information was unavailable for instant noodles, and capsaicinoid content was measured by HPLC analyses. This study developed the CAPKO database, which includes a variety of foods with varying levels of spiciness, which can be used in combination with dietary surveys to estimate capsaicinoid intakes. Therefore, this study established a framework for future database development for other compounds with potential health effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRAK Pertimbangan dalam pemilihan metode ekstraksi untuk mendapatkan senyawa bioaktif dari bahan tanaman diantaranya adalah efisiensi waktu dan jumlah pelarut yang digunakan. Studi terdahulu menunjukan ekstraksi bahan aktif dengan gelombang mikro mempercepat waktu ekstraksindan menghemat penggunaan pelarut dibandingkan metode konvensional, tetapi waktu ekstraksibyang terlalu singkat dan penggunaan pelarut yang terlalu minim membuat hasil ekstraksi tidaknoptimal. Penelitian ini untuk mengetahui pengaruh rasio bahan:pelarut dan lama ekstraksi dengan gelombang mikro terhadap kandungan fitokimia dan aktivitas antioksidan dari ekstrak cabai rawit. Penelitian dilakukan menggunakan Rancangan Acak Kelompok 2 faktor yaitu rasio bahan:pelarut dengan variasi 1:5; 1:10; dan 1:15, serta lama ekstraksi (5, 10, dan 15 menit). Berdasarkan hasil pengujian, rasio bahan:pelarut 1:10 memberikan hasil terbaik untuk kadar total capsaicinoid, total fenol, total flavonoid, dan aktivitas antioksidan dengan nilai rata-rata sebesar 138.06 ± 6.35 mg CE/g BK ekstrak, 33.75 ± 1.75 mg GAE/g BK ekstrak, 205.41 ± 26.13 mg QE/g BK ekstrak, dan 447.96 ±25.63 μg/ml. Lama ekstraksi untuk menghasilkan nilai total capsaicinoid dan total fenol paling tinggi adalah 5 menit, sedangkan untuk total flavonoid pada waktu 10 dan 15 menit. Nilai IC50 memiliki korelasi yang linear dengan total capsaicinoid, total fenol, dan total flavonoid. Pemilihan perlakuan terbaik dengan metode multiple atribut menunjukan rasio bahan:pelarut 1:10 dan lama ekstraksi 10 menit merupakan kombinasi perlakuan paling optimal untuk ekstraksi senyawa fenol menggunakan Microwave Assisted Extraction ABSTRACT The consideration of extraction methods to obtain bioactive compounds of plant origin were the time efficiency and the amount of extraction solvent. Previous studies showed that microwave assisted extraction of active ingredients decrease the extraction time and minimize the solvent compared to conventional methods, but short extraction time and less solvents make extraction less optimal. The aim of this study to determine the effect of materials:solvent and extraction time of microwave assisted extraction to phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of the cayenne pepper extract. The study was conducted using a Randomized Block Design 2 factors of the ratio of material:solvent (1:5; 1:10; and 1:15) and extraction time (5, 10, and 15 min). The results showed that material:solvent ratio of 1:10 gave the best value for total capsaicinoid content, total phenol, total flavonoid and IC50 with average value of 138.06 ± 6.35 mg CE/g DW, 33.75 ± 1.75 mg GAE/g DW extract, 205.41 ± 26.13 mg QE/g DW extract, and 447.96 ± 25.63 μg/ml respectively. The optimal extraction time to generate total capsaicinoid and total phenol content was 5 minutes, while the optimal extraction time for total flavonoid was 10 and 15 minutes. IC50 in this study had a linear correlation with total capsaicinoid, total phenol, and total flavonoid. The best treatment with multiple attribute method showed the materials:solvent ratio of 1:10 and extraction time of 10 minutes was the most optimal treatment combination for extraction of phenol compound by microwave assisted extraction

Red chili pepper ( Capsicum annuum L. ), which belongs to the Solanaceae family, contains a variety of phytochemicals with health-promoting properties including capsaicinoids, phenolics and fatty acids. Red chili pepper is one of the most consumed vegetables in Korea and occupies the largest cultivated area among spices. In this study, the ethanolic extracts from two Korean local cultivars, namely Subicho and Eumseong, were analyzed using a hybrid trapped ion mobility Q-TOF mass spectrometer equipped with a UPLC system, and their phytochemical profiles were then compared with those of a common phytophthora disease-resistant cultivar called Dokbulwang, which is extensively used for red chili pepper powder in public spaces across Korea. Utilizing high-resolution ion-mobility Q-TOF MS analysis, 458 and 192 compounds were identified from the three different red chili peppers in positive and negative ion modes, respectively, by matching with a reference spectral library. Principal component analysis revealed clear distinctions among the three cultivars, allowing us to identify key phytochemical components responsible for discriminating the local cultivars from the public cultivar. Furthermore, the assessment of total flavonoid, phenolic, and antioxidant activity in the red pepper extracts, highlighted their diverse molecular and chemical profiles. Despite the higher total flavonoid and phenolic content values observed in the public cultivar, the radical scavenging rate was higher in the local cultivars, particularly in Subicho. This suggest the presence of stronger antioxidant compounds in the local cultivar, indicating their potential health benefits due to their rich content of bioactive compounds. Notably, the local cultivars exhibited significantly higher proportions of organic compounds (more than four times) and terpenoids (more than two times) compared to the public cultivar. Specifically, higher levels of five major capsaicinoid compounds were found in the local cultivars when compared to the public cultivar. The observed disparities in phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities indicate the molecular diversity present among these cultivars. Further exploration of the bioactive compounds in these local cultivars could prove invaluable for the development of native crops, potentially leading to the discovery of novel sources of bioactive molecules for various applications in health and agriculture., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Jang, Choi and Jang.)

The biosynthesis pathway of capsaicinoids includes the conversion of vanillin to vanillylamine, where putative aminotransferase (pAMT) is thought to be the enzyme responsible in Capsicum plants. The objectives of this study were to prove that pAMT is the enzyme responsible for this conversion in plants and to clarify its catalytic properties using biochemical methods. Both an extract of habanero placenta and recombinant pAMT (rpAMT) constructed by using an Escherichia coli expression system were able to convert vanillin to vanillylamine in the presence of γ-aminobutyric acid as an amino donor and pyridoxal phosphate as a coenzyme. Conversion from vanillin to vanillylamine by the placenta extract was significantly attenuated by adding an anti-pAMT antibody to the reaction system. The amino donor specificity and affinity for vanillin of rpAMT were similar to those of the placenta extract. We thus confirmed that pAMT is the enzyme responsible for the conversion of vanillin to vanillylamine in capsaicinoid synthesis in Capsicum fruits. Therefore, we propose that pAMT should henceforth be named vanillin aminotransferase (VAMT).

Summary: Capsaicinoids are unique compounds that give chili pepper fruits their pungent taste. Capsaicinoid levels vary widely among pungent cultivars, which range from low pungency to extremely pungent. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this quantitative variation have not been elucidated. Our previous study identified various loss‐of‐function alleles of the pAMT gene which led to low pungency. The mutations in these alleles are commonly defined by Tcc transposon insertion and its footprint. In this study, we identified two leaky pamt alleles (pamtL1 and pamtL2) with different levels of putative aminotransferase (pAMT) activity. Notably, both alleles had a Tcc transposon insertion in intron 3, but the locations of the insertions within the intron were different. Genetic analysis revealed that pamtL1, pamtL2 and a loss‐of‐function pamt allele reduced capsaicinoid levels to about 50%, 10% and less than 1%, respectively. pamtL1 and pamtL2 encoded functional pAMT proteins, but they exhibited lower transcript levels than the functional type. RNA sequencing analysis showed that intronic transposons disrupted splicing in intron 3, which resulted in simultaneous expression of functional pAMT mRNA and non‐functional splice variants containing partial sequences of Tcc. The non‐functional splice variants were more dominant in pamtL2 than in pamtL1. This suggested that the difference in position of the intronic transposons could alter splicing efficiency, leading to different pAMT activities and reducing capsaicinoid content to different levels. Our results provide a striking example of allelic variations caused by intronic transposons; these variations contribute to quantitative differences in secondary metabolite contents. Significance Statement: This study demonstrated that differences in the position of an intronic transposon can determine variation in the content of secondary metabolites. The two leaky pamt alleles identified here can provide insights into the domestication process of chili peppers and may also offer a breeding tool for the quantitative reduction of pungency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capsicum has been proved to have anti-obesity effect. In this study, extracts from multi-strain coupled fermented capsicum (EFC) and from fresh capsicum (EC) were compared in their anti-obesity effect among these obese mice induced by high-fat diet (HFD), in order to exploring the potential mechanism of EFC for alleviating obesity. It has shown that the constituents of capsicum undergo transformation during fermentation. Obese mice in all experimental groups had similar energy absorption, and both EFC and EC relieved obesity, with better effect in the EFC group than in the EC group. Lower lipid and cholesterol were observed in serum, liver and feces in HFD-FC (HFD supplied with EFC)group compared to HFD-C (HFD supplied with EC) group. In addition, the HFD-FC group had less visceral fat and a smaller adipocyte size. The HFD-FC group exhibited better sensitivity to hormones, with lower levels of both leptin and insulin and higher ghrelin level. Expression of PPARα, CPT-1α, HSL and ACO were up-regulated, whereas PPARγ and C/EBPα were down-regulated significantly in the HFD-FC group compared to the HFD-C group. In summary, fermentation of Capsicum leads to a better effect on preventing fat accumulation and reducing lipid levels, which may be regulated by certain new contents in EFC that facilitate lipid metabolism and hormone response. • The consituents of capsicum undergo transformation during the fermentation. • Fermention improves the effect of capsicum on relieving and preventing HFD-induced mouse obesity. • Upon fermentation, capsicum improves the lipid metabolism and hormone response in obesity induced by HFD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in genomics and metabolomics have made the study of specialized metabolism far more tractable than it was previously. Here we evaluate specialized metabolite pathways of Capsicum spp. (peppers), focusing mainly on carotenoids, flavonoids, and capsaicinoids as examples of classes of secondary metabolites. To place these data in the context of the evolution of metabolic pathways, we compare the extent of genomic and chemical diversity in several species of the nightshades (Solanaceae), the family to which pepper belongs. We further discuss the genetic mechanisms known to underly metabolic diversity prior to carrying out a detailed genomic study of the enzymes active in the pathways influencing fruit color and pungency. Using large-scale comparative analyses across 25 sequenced plant genomes, we identify orthologs of structural metabolic genes and discuss the data in terms of variation of gene family size and its impact on the diversity of secondary metabolites. BCAA: branched-chain amino acid; K-Pg: Cretaceous-Paleogene; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TE: transposable element; WGD: whole genome duplication [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This work investigated the sensory perception of whey protein emulsion gels containing capsaicinoids, in relation to their structure and in-mouth breakdown behaviour. The gel structure was modified by varying the oil droplet size and the ionic strength. Eighteen human subjects were used to investigate oral processing behaviour and sensory perception. The gels were classified into three groups according to their rheological properties: semi-solid gel (10 mM NaCl with d 4,3 of ∼0.17 μm); soft and elastic gels (10 mM NaCl with d 4,3 of ∼4, 1 and 0.5 μm); hard and brittle gels (100 mM NaCl with d 4,3 of ∼4, 1, 0.5 and 0.17 μm). A power-law relationship between gel hardness and masticated bolus particle size was established: Y = 25.38 X − 0.29 , with R 2 = 0.69, indicating that greater hardness led to smaller bolus particle size. A power-law relationship between mouth burn perception and bolus particle size was also established: Y = 119.5 X − 0.25 , with R 2 = 0.76, indicating that mouth burn perception was positively related to the degree of fragmentation. A higher degree of fragmentation led to greater surface exposure during mastication and, therefore, a greater possibility of capsaicinoid molecules being released. Moreover, an increase in gel hardness led to a lower diffusion rate of capsaicinoid molecules through the gelled particles and, therefore, to lower mouth burn perception. The effects of oil droplet release after mastication and saltiness perception were less important than the degree of fragmentation and gel hardness. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • The mouth burn perception of capsaicinoids in emulsion gels was investigated. • The masticated bolus particle size depends on gel hardness. • Smaller masticated bolus particle size leads to greater mouth burn perception. • Mouth burn perception correlates negatively with food hardness. • Modifying food structure can tailor food breakdown behaviour and sensory perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The placental tissue of the highly pungent chilli cultivar, Capsicum chinense Jacq. cv. 'Umorok', is used as explants for callus induction. Callus cultures were subcultured after every 32 days and growth curves for a period of six consecutive growth cycles were studied till a stable capsaicinoids producing callus cultures were obtained. The capsaicinoids content in placental tissue explants decreased gradually during the first 2 months of culture as the explants dedifferentiated to form friable callus while the biomass and capsaicinoid content did not show much change in the subsequent growth cycles. The maximum callus biomass of 7.8 g freshweight (FW) or 0.56 g dry weight (DW) per culture were obtained on the 24th day of every growth cycle and the maximum average capsaicinoids content (1.6 mg g−1 FW capsaicin and 0.78 mg g−1 FW dihydrocapsaicin) were obtained on the 20th day of every growth cycle. To investigate the underlying dynamics for capsaicinoid biosynthesis during callus formation, comparative gene expression analysis of the genes involved in capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway were also studied by qRT-PCR analysis. When compared with placental tissue, all the studied genes showed reduced expression during callus formation, especially putative aminotransferase (pAMT) and pungent gene 1 (Pun1), which were extensively down regulated from the 3rd month onwards in the callus cultures. Therefore, the present study revealed that the down-regulated expression of mainly two putative genes in capsaicinoid biosynthetic pathway (pAMT and Pun1) resulted in lower accumulation of capsaicinoids in callus cultures compared to placental tissues of fruits. Key message: The present study reports the gene expression analysis of the genes involved in capsaicinoid biosynthesis pathway during callus formation from placental tissue explants of Capsicum chinense Jacq. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of sanshoamides and capsaiciniods on plasma and liver lipid levels and the mRNA expression levels of key receptors involved in cholesterol metabolism in hyperlipidemic rats. A total of 56 three-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to 7 treatment groups based on initial body weight (n = 8 rats per group). With certain combinations of sanshoamides and capsaicinoids significantly increased food intake, reduced lipid levels in blood and liver, improved histological characteristics of a fatty liver, down regulated mRNA expression levels of cholesterol 7-alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutary CoA (HMG-CoA) and Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) in liver and apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter, Ileal Bile Acid Binding Protein and FXR in the ileum in hyperlipidemic rats. These results indicated that dietary supplementation with sanshoamides and capsaicinoids reduced blood lipid levels and improved cholesterol metabolism in hyperlipidemic rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was designed to evaluate the contents of different antioxidants compounds and their antioxidant activities in Jalopeno peppers (Capsicum annuum) cultivars (El Dorido, Grande, Tula, Sayula and El Rey) extracts. Free radical scavenging activity of Grande was recorded as high as 87% followed by El Dorido (83%). Results of reducing power (Fe3+ to Fe2+) showed that Grande (0.85%) and El Dorido (0.81%) fruit extract absorbance value were close to synthetic antioxidant BHT (0. 97%) obtained at100 μg/mL. The results showed that total phenolic content of El Dorido and Grande were significantly higher compared to other Jalapeno pepper. Results indicated strong and positive correlation between antioxidant activity and carotenoids content (r = 0.75), vitamin C (r = 0.78) and total capsaicinoids (r = 0.84), respectively. The results of the antioxidant activity assays showed that the El Dorido and Grande had strongest antioxidant activity compared to other peppers cultivars in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effect of gel structure on the digestion of heat-set whey protein emulsion gels containing capsaicinoids (CAP), including the bioaccessibility of CAP. Upon heat treatment at 90 °C, whey protein emulsion gels containing CAP (10 wt% whey protein isolate, 20 wt% soybean oil, 0.02 wt% CAP) with different structures and gel mechanical strengths were formed by varying ionic strength. The hard gel (i.e., oil droplet size d4,3 ~ 0.5 μm, 200 mM NaCl), with compact particulate gel structure, led to slower disintegration of the gel particles and slower hydrolysis of the whey proteins during gastric digestion compared with the soft gel (i.e., d4,3 ~ 0.5 μm, 10 mM NaCl). The oil droplets started to coalesce after 60 min of gastric digestion in the soft gel, whereas minor oil droplet coalescence was observed for the hard gel at the end of the gastric digestion. In general, during intestinal digestion, the gastric digesta from the hard gel was disintegrated more slowly than that from the soft gel. A power-law fit between the bioaccessibility of CAP (Y) and the extent of lipid digestion (X) was established: Y = 49.2 × (X − 305.3)0.104, with R2 = 0.84. A greater extent of lipid digestion would lead to greater release of CAP from the food matrix; also, more lipolytic products would be produced and would participate in micelle formation, which would help to solubilize the released CAP and therefore result in their higher bioaccessibility.

Capsaicinoid content, among other factors, affects the perception of spiciness of commercial kimchi. Here, we investigated whether the physicochemical properties of kimchi affect the spicy taste of capsaicinoids perceived by the tasting. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to evaluate the capsaicinoid content (mg/kg) of thirteen types of commercial kimchi. The physicochemical properties such as pH, titratable acidity, salinity, free sugar content, and free amino acid content were evaluated, and the spicy strength grade was determined by selected panel to analyze the correlation between these properties. Panels were trained for 48 h prior to actual evaluation by panel leaders trained for over 1000 h according to the SpectrumTM method. Partial correlation analysis was performed to examine other candidate parameters that interfere with the sensory evaluation of spiciness and capsaicinoid content. To express the specific variance after eliminating the effects of other variables, partial correlations were used to estimate the relationships between two variables. We observed a strong correlation between spiciness intensity ratings and capsaicinoid content, with a Pearson’s correlation coefficient of 0.78 at p ≤ 0.001. However, other specific variables may have influenced the relationship between spiciness intensity and total capsaicinoid content. Partial correlation analysis indicated that the free sugar content most strongly affected the relationship between spiciness intensity and capsaicinoid content, showing the largest first-order partial correlation coefficient (rxy/z: 0.091, p ≤ 0.01).

[Display omitted] • The engineered E. coli can convert olive oil and vanillylamine to nonivamide. • Enhancement of nonanoate tolerance of host cell increased nonivamide biosynthesis. • Biotransformation conditions were optimized to enhance the nonivamide production. • High nonivamide production (0.5 g/L titer, 25.03 % yield) was achieved from nonanoate. Capsaicinoids are mostly derived from chili peppers and have widespread applications in food, feed, and pharmacology. Compared with plant extraction, the use of microbial cell factories for capsaicinoids production is considered as a more efficient approach. Here, the biotransformation of renewable plant oil and vanillylamine into capsaicinoid nonivamide was investigated. Nonivamide biosynthesis using nonanoic acid and vanillylamine as substrates was achieved in Escherichia coli by heterologous expression of genes encoding amide-forming N -acyltransferase and CoA-ligase. Through increasing nonanoic acid tolerance of chassis cell, screening key enzymes involved in nonivamide biosynthesis and optimizing biotransformation conditions, the nonivamide titer reached 0.5 g/L. By further integrating a route for conversion of oleic acid to nonanoic acid, nonivamide biosynthesis was finally achieved using olive oil and vanillylamine as substrates, yielding a titer of approximately 10.7 mg/L. Results from this study provide valuable information for constructing highly efficient cell factories for the production of capsaicinoid compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study investigated the effect of green solvents (ethanol, acetone, and their mixture) on oleoresin yield, extraction of pungent compounds, volatiles, colorants, and the correlations with phytochemical and antioxidant activities of 5 spices (chili, black pepper, turmeric, ginger, and coriander). The solvents' polarities and boiling points determined the oleoresin extractability, and the solvent mixture recorded the maximum yield in all spices. A total of 33 volatiles and 8 non-volatile compounds were identified in the essential oil and oleoresin fractions. Curcumin and 6-gingerol contributed to strong antioxidant properties with Pearson correlations of 0.999 and 0.924, respectively. Acetone reported the highest yield of curcumin (244.09 ± 1.71 mg/g) and 6-gingerol (131.98 ± 2.86 mg/g), whereas ethanol was the most effective solvent for capsaicinoids and piperine. Chili oleoresin extracted by ethanol delivered the maximum pungency. Acetone displayed the highest extractability of linalool detected in coriander oleoresin and essential oil. Chili oleoresin contained the highest carotenoid yield, and acetone extracted the maximum red and yellow fractions. Chili and black pepper possessed high Browning Indices and positively correlated with the total flavonoid content. β-caryophyllene dominated the essential oil profile of chili and black pepper, and the solvent mixture reported the maximum yields as 47.43% ± 0.69% and 75.11% ± 0.64%, respectively. Conclusively, the solvent mixture extracted the maximum oleoresin yield; acetone showed the highest affinity for colorants, volatiles, and antioxidants in turmeric, ginger, and coriander, while ethanol was the most efficient solvent in extracting bioactive compounds of chili and black pepper. [Display omitted] • Green solvents can be used in oleoresin extractions targeting food applications. • Extraction efficiency depends on polarity and boiling point of solvents. • Curcumin is strongly correlated with phytochemical and antioxidant capacities. • Capcaicinoids and piperine improve the pungency level of spices. • Essential oils can be isolated from oleoresins by hydrodistillation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumption of capsaicin or its nonpungent analogues, capsinoids has been reported to affect energy expenditure and fat oxidation, although available data are still controversial. The aim of the present study was to conduct a meta-analysis regarding the effects of these substances on energy expenditure and respiratory quotient, with special emphasis on the role of body mass index (BMI) of the participants. Medical databases were systematically searched for papers. Of the 627 trials identified, 9 provided results suitable to be included in analysis. Data analysis showed that after ingestion of capsaicin or capsinoids the energy expenditure increased (245 kJ/day, 58.56 kcal/day, p = 0.030) and the respiratory quotient decreased (by 0.216; p = 0.031) indicating a rise in fat oxidation. Studies with mean BMI of the participants below 25 kg/m2 failed to report any effect of capsaicin or capsinoids on the energy expenditure (p = 0.718) or on the respiratory quotient (p = 0.444), but studies with mean BMI exceeding 25 kg/m2 demonstrated an increase in energy expenditure (292 kJ/day, 69.79 kcal/day, p = 0.023) and a marked decrease in respiratory quotient (-0.257, p = 0.036). Our data clearly suggest that capsaicin or capsiate could be a new therapeutic approach in obesity promoting a negative energy balance and increased fat oxidation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From nutritional points of view, carotenoids, capsaicinoids, and tocopherols are valuable constituents in pungent peppers. A rapid and reliable high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for the simultaneous determination of phytonutrients in spice red peppers and chili products was developed and validated. The method included simultaneous detection by fluorescence and diode-array detectors. The major capsaicinoids, two tocopherols and 43 carotenoid components, were simultaneously separated, detected, and identified in the appointed pepper powder (containingCapsicum annuumandCapsicum frutescens) for method validation. The separation was performed on a Nucleosil C18 reverse phase column and optimized gradient elution. Resolution ranged between 0.96 and 1.46 with the highest values corresponding to γ-tocopherol and α-tocopherol. The limits of detection and quantification of target compounds ranged between 18.77 and 148.08 ng mL−1. Recoveries were between 89.83–100.26 and 79.72–88.86% when standard materials were spiked at low and high amounts, respectively. The most sufficient extraction of the different phytonutrients was achieved by mixture of methanol and acetone, although it was only slightly better than the mixture of methanol and acetonitrile. These results suggest that the developed method could be used for rapid, one-step determination of a wide range of phytonutrients in chili and pepper powders. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Key message: This research reveals that the up-regulated expression of multiple capsaicinoid biosynthetic genes in pericarp tissue leads to the elevation of total capsaicinoid content in chili pepper fruit. Abstract: Capsaicinoids are health-functional compounds that are produced uniquely in chili pepper fruits. A high capsaicinoid level is one of the major parameters determining the commercial quality and health-promoting properties of chili peppers. To investigate the mechanisms responsible for its high contents, we compared an extremely pungent cultivar 'Trinidad Moruga Scorpion Yellow' (MY) with other cultivars of different pungency levels (Fushimi-amanaga, Takanotsume, Red Habanero). Capsaicinoid concentrations were markedly higher in MY fruit (23.9 mg/g DW) than in other pungent cultivars including 'Red Habanero' (HB) fruit (14.3 mg/g DW). Comparative analysis of MY and HB reveals that both cultivars accumulated similar capsaicinoid concentrations in the placental septum, with that in the HB pericarp (1.8 mg/g DW) being markedly lower than that in the placental septum (69.1 mg/g DW). The capsaicinoid concentration in HB fruit is dependent on the placental septum, as reported in other accessions. Therefore, even though placental septum tissue contains high capsaicinoid concentrations, those in the pericarp and seeds attenuated its total content. In contrast, the MY pericarp exhibited a markedly higher concentration (23.2 mg/g DW). A qRT-PCR analysis revealed that multiple capsaicinoid biosynthetic pathway genes ( Pun1, pAMT, KAS, and BCAT) were strongly up-regulated in placental septum of pungent cultivars. The genes were expressed exclusively in the MY pericarp, but were barely detected in the pericarps of other pungent cultivars. Collectively, the present study indicates that the up-regulated expression of these genes not only in placental septum but also in pericarp plays an important role in driving capsaicinoid accumulation in the whole fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) has become a powerful tool for post-genomic technology in plant species. This is important, especially in select plants, such as the pepper plant, that are recalcitrant to Agrobacteriummediated transformation. Although VIGS in plants has been widely employed as a powerful tool for functional genomics, scattering phenotypic effects by uneven gene silencing has been implemented in order to overcome challenges in experiments with fruit tissues. Results: We improved the VIGS system based on the tobacco rattle virus (TRV) containing the An2 MYB transcription factor, which is the genetic determinant of purple colored- or anthocyanin-rich pepper. Silencing of endogenous An2 in the anthocyanin-rich pepper with the modified TRV vector for ligation-independent cloning (LIC) lacked purple pigment in its leaves, flowers, and fruits. Infection with TRV-LIC containing a tandem construct of An2 and phytoene desaturase (PDS) resulted in a typical photobleaching event in leaves without the purple pigment, whereas silencing of PDS led to the presence of photobleached and purple-colored leaves. Cosilencing of endogenous An2 and capsaicin synthase in fruits resulted in decreased levels of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin as assessed by high performance liquid chromatography analysis coupled with the absence of the purple pigment in fruits. Conclusions: VIGS with tandem constructs harboring An2 as a visible reporter in anthocyanin-rich pepper plants can facilitate the application of functional genomics in the study of metabolic pathways and fruit biology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]