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This paper aims to study the determinants of educational mismatch from a gender perspective, analysing the sectoral heterogeneity that may arise among these determinants in four key productive branches within the Spanish tourism sub-sector, i.e., hospitality, transport, intermediary services (travel agencies) and other complementary services. In order to achieve this objective, we used a multinomial logit model using data from the 2018 Wage Structure Survey of the Spanish National Statistics Institute. Among the results obtained, we highlight that educational mismatch is not a transitory phenomenon. Furthermore, it is interesting to note the greater probability of male overeducation observed in the hospitality industry and female overeducation in the rest of the services analysed, this latter result is possibly a reflection of the occupational gender segregation experienced by women in these branches of the economy. Due to these results, we proposed various measures to combat occupational gender segregation in a way that favours the fight for gender equality. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

This paper contributes to the study of the gender wage gap in the Spanish services sector, through the specific analysis of its four main sub-sectors: hospitality industry, transport industry, travel agencies services and other complementary services. Its objective is to analyse the different determinants of the gender wage gap across the wage distribution. This analysis makes it possible to examine the extent to which these determinants affect the wage decomposition in each sector in a heterogeneous way, showing whether there are significant differences in the discriminatory and non-discriminatory components between the different wage levels. Among the factors analysed, vertical gender segregation and the human capital of workers stand out. In relation to the latter determinant, special attention is paid to education and educational mismatch. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

La school-to-work transition ha adquirido un especial interés en la investigación como consecuencia de la alta segmentación laboral que se ha venido produciendo a nivel europeo en las últimas décadas, máxime en el sur de Europa. La dualidad del mercado laboral se manifiesta particularmente en grupos vulnerables como jóvenes y mujeres, generando situaciones de precariedad laboral y exclusión social. De hecho, lo anterior ocupa un lugar destacado dentro de los principales planes de acción europeos (e.g., Agenda 2030 de Desarrollo Sostenible de Naciones Unidas). Dada las consecuencias negativas que tiene la entrada al mercado laboral a través de trabajos de poca calidad, investigaciones previas se centran en analizar la school-to-work transition a través del concepto de “primer trabajo significativo” propuesto por Eurostat. No obstante, y aunque la educación universitaria es el nivel educativo que mayores garantías proporciona para su obtención, son escasos los trabajos que se centran en este colectivo. De esta forma, y tomando la teoría del mercado dual de trabajo como punto de partida, esta investigación analiza los determinantes académicos (tipo de universidad, área de conocimiento, educación financiera, estancia en el extranjero, prácticas curriculares y extracurriculares, trabajo estudiantil, habilidades TIC e idiomas) que contribuyen a la obtención de un trabajo significativo por parte del egresado universitario español en un contexto de gran dualidad laboral y desde una perspectiva de género, tanto a corto (tras su graduación) como a medio-largo plazo (a los 3-4 años de graduación). Asimismo, incluye por primera vez, hasta donde nuestro conocimiento alcanza, la adecuación formativa al puesto de trabajo en la definición de trabajo significativo. A nivel metodológico, se utilizan modelos de elección discreta con corrección del sesgo de selección a través de los datos contenidos en la última Encuesta de Inserción Laboral de Titulados Universitarios (EILU-2019). Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

This article contributes to a better understanding of tourists’ environmental concerns, assuming that distance from the place of residence is relevant. The analysis is conducted for EU-27 countries, combining micro-data, correspond to the Flash Eurobarometer 281 drawn from the European Commission and macro-data from different international sources. Since the environmental attitudes may vary across different cultures and societies, the individuals should be nested into countries. Therefore, it is inappropriate to analyze data using traditional regression analysis. Mixed model specifically may take into account such hierarchical data structure considering simultaneously individual and contextual variables. A general finding from the estimates indicated that significant variance exists within and among nations in the level of environmental support. This finding is congruent with the necessity of simultaneously assessing the effect of individual and country levels variables on environmental support across the European countries. Additionally, this paper demonstrates that people who are actively involved in protecting the environment at home do not maintain this type of behavior when they go on vacation, which may have negative environmental consequences on destinations, albeit involuntarily. The environmental concerns of tourists when travelling domestically were around 15% higher than those travelling abroad. Additionally, the random slope variance regarding destination choice parameter is statistically significant, which allows us to explore the underpinning behind the heterogeneous pattern across countries. Our results can be of great importance to minimize the negative environmental impacts when traveling, and represents an interesting starting point to reduce the environmentally unsustainable behaviors in the tourist field.

Different studies have shown that environmental activists at home display an attitude-behaviour gap when they go on holiday. Attribution theory investigates why people who are actively involved in protecting the environment at home do not maintain this type of behaviour when they go on vacation, which may have negative environmental consequences, albeit involuntarily. This paper contributes to a better understanding of such hypothesis analyzing tourists’ environmental attitudes distinguishing when they decide to go on holiday domestically or abroad. The paper takes advantage of multilevel approach because destination choice may affect pro-environmental attitudes of tourists heterogeneously across European countries. Since the individuals are nested into countries, a random slope logistic model specifically may take into account such hierarchical data structure considering simultaneously individual and contextual variables (Rabe-Hesketh & Skrondal, 2012). This model can adequately split the variation in environmental support of tourists into a between-individual level and a within-country level, allowing the intercept and/or the coefficients (slopes) to vary randomly across countries. The analysis is conducted for EU-27 countries, combining micro-data, correspond to the Flash Eurobarometer 281 drawn from the European Commission and data from the European Value Survey, and macro-data from different international sources. The study concludes that the environmental concerns of tourists when travelling domestically were around 15% higher than those travelling abroad. Additionally, the random slope variance regarding destination choice parameter is statistically significant, which allows us to explore the underpinning behind the heterogeneous pattern across countries. In fact, tourists from The Netherlands, Ireland or Spain do not show significant differences in their behavior when traveling outside or within borders. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

This paper investigates the causal relationship between economic growth and tourism development across the Spanish regions using monthly data of the industrial production index and nights spent by domestic and international tourist. We use the bootstrap panel Granger causality approach proposed by Emirmahmutoglu and Kose (2011) which accounts for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity across regions. Empirical results reveal the existence of bidirectional causality, the domestic tourism being the main driving force behind them. The TLEG hypothesis finds support in internal regions while the EDTG hypothesis holds for the coastal ones En este paper estudiamos la existencia de relaciones de causalidad à la Granger entre crecimiento económico y desarrollo turístico con datos regionales españoles. Para ello recurrimos a datos mensuales del índice de producción industrial y a pernoctaciones de turistas residentes y no residentes en las 17 comunidades autónomas españolas durante el periodo 2002-2016. Como metodología econométrica se utiliza el análisis de causalidad Granger sobre paneles heterogéneos propuesto por Emirmahmutoglu y Kose (2011) en la que se tiene en cuenta la existencia de correlación transversal entre las unidades del panel mediante la generación de valores críticos con técnicas de bootstrap. Los resultados obtenidos muestran la existencia de una relación bidireccional entre turismo y crecimiento económico, siendo el turismo doméstico el que desempeña un papel relevante en esas relaciones de causalidad. Por último, al agrupar las distintas regiones en costeras y de interior se observa que la hipótesis TLEG recibe su apoyo de las regiones del interior mientras que en las regiones costeras es la hipótesis EDTG la que encuentra respaldo Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech

Any movement towards sustainable tourism is dependent not only upon the industry and other key stakeholders but also the demand side, namely the tourists. Yet, there is a limited literature from the demand point of view. In this area, contributions to an understanding of tourists’ support to sustainable development are necessary. This paper analyzes the main determinants in tourist behavior regarding the environmental considerations when they are making decisions about their holiday plans. General literature on this issue highlights the need to consider socio-economic variables of the individual as well as the attributes related of their style of living. If the econometric model takes into account all these variables simultaneously, then the linkage between contextual changes and tourists´ behaviour is enriched and it may be estimated more accurately. In this sense, a multilevel approach using a random-intercept logistic models is proposed, since tourists belong to a country are affected by the same contextual variables. The analysis comprises a joint dataset composed by microdata belong to the survey Attitudes of Europeans Towards Tourism, which corresponds to Flash Eurobarometer 281, macrodata from Eurostat (GDP in pps and GDP growth) and additional variables profiles from the 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index. Country-specific effects are calculated across the EU-27 countries, which corroborated that attitudes to the sustainable tourism are heterogeneous geo-graphically. The higher the level of GDP, the lower the level of tourists´ support. These results could be explained because tourists of richer countries already have to pay more tax for envi-ronmental protection. Age, gender and educational attainment are relevant. Motivations for travelling, size of the community, type of the destination, and environmental sustainability indi-cators of the place of residence are also important factors. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

The main aim of this study is to determine the impact of innovation on productivity in service sector companies — especially those in the hospitality sector — that value the reduction of environmental impact as relevant to the innovation process. We used a structural analysis model based on the one developed by Crépon, Duguet, and Mairesse (1998). This model is known as the CDM model (an acronym of the authors’ surnames). These authors developed seminal studies in the field of the relationships between innovation and productivity (Griliches 1979; Pakes and Grilliches 1980). The main advantage of the CDM model is its ability to integrate the process of innovation and business productivity from an empirical perspective. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

This paper analyzes how tourist from European countries consider environmental issues when making decisions about their their holiday plans. Modelling these decisions is a challenge because environmental concerns depends on both individiual characteristics and contextul factors related to the country or residence, such as cultural, social and economic condictions. For that reason, environmental support by households exhibit a particular type of grouped structure, where individual, firs level, are nested into countries, second level. This hierarchical structure of date are dealed with a multilevel aproach. The estimates from a Two-Level Random Intercept Logistic Model and the post-estimation analysis demonstrate that the effects of country vary randomly, and that there is significant variance in the level of tourists´ environmental support within and between countries. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

This study focuses on the underpinnings of the households’ tourism expenditure decisions during the global economic crisis in 2009. In particular, this study tests if during an economic crisis, decisions on tourism expenditure depend on climate conditions of the place of origin, GDP and GDP growth, among other well-known determinants. It should be noted that cutback decisions on tourism expenditure are not independent of destination choice, and for that reason the model requires the estimation of both decisions simultaneously. The methodology proposed in this paper represents a new way of analyzing the impacts of an economic crisis on tourism expenditure. Two levels of analysis can be considered. On the one hand, macroeconomic data of tourism expenditure is usually explored. On the other hand, the microeconomic analysis of the household and regional variables of their environment that may enrich the analysis. If the econometric model takes into account all these variables simultaneously, then the linkage between GDP changes and tourists´ behavior is enriched and it may be estimated more accurately. As far as we know, this paper is the first study that models the cutback decision on tourism expenditure. Modeling such decision is a challenge because it is not independent of the destination choice. For instance, households that travel domestically may not be as sensitive to the crisis as those who travel abroad. For this purpose, the econometric model employed is a simultaneous system of cutback decision and destination choice. More precisely, Simultaneous Semi-Ordered Bivariate Probit has proved to be the most useful econometric model for the estimation because it deals with the simultaneity of the cutback and destination choice decisions as well as the endogeneity. This research has proved that during an economic crisis, households react cutting back their tourism expenditure depending on GDP, GDP growth, and climate in their place of origin. In that sense, there are marked differences between North-European and Mediterranean regions. It is interesting to note that regions with bad climate are less likely to cut back than those households located in regions with good climate. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

Literature shows that heterogeneity in willingness to pay for traveling is explained by regional clusters because not all the tourists are equally sensitive to income and price adjustments. This paper demonstrated that such heterogeneity in tourist behavior is also shown in environmental considerations when they are making decisions about their holiday plans. Popular support for environmental protection among tourists from EU-27 countries were investigated. The findings are congruent with the hypothesis that environment support depends not only on individual characteristics of themselves but also of certain contextual variables related to their place of residence. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

The main objective of this work is to analyze the labour market of the hospitality industry in Spain from a gender perspective. For this proposal, we analyze the effects of educational mismatch on workers’ occupational mobility and on gender wage inequality. In addition to these effects, the decomposition of the gender wage gap, based on an explicit theoretical approach, is controlled by different types of gender segregation and indicators of internal and external mobility. Our indicator of workers' educational mismatch is based on the comparison between the worker's level of education and the educational level required to perform his/her job; the analysis of internal and external labour mobility is based on logit models and for analyzing the gender wage gap decomposition we used a version of the well-known Oaxaca-Ramson´s (1994) approach. The data source used in this study is generated for a survey which collected the opinion of 2476 workers in hospitality firms with 7 or more employees. The evidence shows not only that external mobility is far higher than internal mobility in this sector, but also that is the main cause of wage inequality between men and women. This fact can be explained by labor discrimination against women who have no access to labor improvements in the same conditions than men. Educational mismatch has a limited effect on internal and external mobility for both genders. Thus, entry positions do not serve as first step in the worker´s future career in this sector. Finally, gender discrimination, which explains most of the gender wage inequality, is mainly due to horizontal segregation effect and discrimination of women regarding external mobility. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

Tourists from different European regions have reacted heterogeneously during the Global Economic Crisis. Such variability is due to different preferences and willingness to pay for tourism. This paper explores the underpinnings behind such heterogeneity. Regional variables and household socioeconomic variables are gathered to understand tourists' expenditure cutback decision. Since the cutback decision is not independent of the destination choice, a Simultaneous Semi-Ordered Bivariate Probit model is specified, which deals with the simultaneous estimation of both decisions and endogeneity. Post-estimation results are based on GIS, contours and non-parametric analysis. They prove that during an economic crisis, tourists' cutback decisions on tourism expenditure depend on climate conditions of the place of origin, GDP and GDP growth. Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional de Andalucía

This paper analyses the role of income in the decision of participating in the tourism demand within one year. The tourists who are participating, can travel to domestic destinations only, abroad destinations only, or to both of them. Such substitution pattern is modelled using a bivariate probit model. The analysis is carried out to the regional level using a survey conducted in 15 European countries. In addition to the traditional socioeconomic variables, the analysis adds new variables to the outbound tourism demand modelling, such as the attributes of the place of residence. The results show that tourism demand is income elastic. However, there are marked differences in the income elasticities of the probabilities of travelling domestically or abroad. Above certain income threshold, the substitution pattern between destinations takes part. The probability of travelling domestically only remains constant, whereas the probability of travelling abroad keeps growing. Additionally, the paper proves that income elasticities vary significantly and non-linearly with income.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este trabajo es estimar de forma separada la contribución de la segregación horizontal y vertical en la diferencia salarial de género en la hostelería. Dicha estimación se lleva a cabo desde una perspectiva territorial, distinguiendo entre distintas zonas turísticas de Andalucía. Se emplean datos emparejados trabajador-establecimiento de una muestra de 181 hoteles y 121 restaurantes. Entre los principales resultados cabe resaltar los siguientes. La segregación vertical aumenta la diferencia salarial. Ahora bien, esta contribución es mayor en las capitales de provincia y en la costa que en el interior de Andalucía. La segregación horizontal contribuye a reducirla, aunque sólo en los establecimientos de capital de provincia y costa. ABSTRACT The target of this work is to estimate separately the contribution of horizontal and vertical segregation on the gender wage gap in the hospitality sector. Such estimation is carried out from a territorial perspective, distinguishing between different tourism areas in Andalusia. Matched employee-employer data from a sample of 181 hotels and 121 restaurants is used. The main results are the following ones. Vertical segregation increases the wage differential. However, this contribution is higher in the capital of province and in the coastal areas than in the interior areas. Horizontal segregation diminishes the wage gap only in the capitals of province and in the coastal areas.

Para cubrir estas carencias en la literatura, en la presente tesis doctoral se ha realizado un análisis de los factores que condicionan la rentabilidad de los restaurantes europeos. Con ello se trata de dar respuesta a varias cuestiones de investigación relacionadas con los niveles de rentabilidad de una gran muestra de restaurantes en el ámbito europeo, analizando las variables más significativas que influyen en la misma, lo que nos va a permitir predecir la rentabilidad de un restaurante a partir de variables microeconómicas de los establecimientos analizados y contextuales del país en el que operan. Los restaurantes representan una parte importante del sector servicios en la economía europea y conforman un segmento significativo dentro de la actividad turística. Se trata, por tanto, de una industria relevante en Europa a la que no han sido ajenos los intereses de profesionales y académicos. En las últimas décadas, un significativo número de estudios científicos se han centrado en la industria de la restauración por su importancia en el ámbito del turismo. El análisis de las estrategias de diferenciación se ha situado en la literatura previa como un determinante clave de la rentabilidad de los restaurantes, pues en un entorno de gran competencia los restaurantes buscan ventajas competitivas que proporcionen un mayor rendimiento de las inversiones. Los resultados de las investigaciones existentes al respecto han tratado de identificar las variables que inciden en dicha rentabilidad y han concluido que los factores relacionados con la calidad del servicio, la gestión de los costes, la estructura de financiación y la percepción de los grupos de interés han resultado ser los más relevantes. Aunque los estudios sobre la rentabilidad en la industria de la restauración han proporcionado importantes avances, aún presentan limitaciones, especialmente debido al uso de muestras localizadas en un solo segmento o en un solo país, siendo necesarias nuevas investigaciones que aporten conocimientos sobre el comportamiento global de la industria, utilizando muestras supranacionales de países.