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A path-integral approach is used to study the spectral properties of the generators of the SO(2, 1) symmetry of conformal quantum mechanics (CQM). In particular, we consider the CQM version that corresponds to the weak-coupling regime of the inverse square potential. We develop a general framework to characterize a generic symmetry generator G (linear combinations of the Hamiltonian H, special conformal operator K, and dilation operator D), from which the path-integral propagators follow, leading to a complete spectral decomposition. This is done for the three classes of operators: Elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic. We also highlight novel results for the hyperbolic operators, with a continuous spectrum, and their quantum-mechanical interpretation. The spectral technique developed for the eigensystem of continuous-spectrum operators can be generalized to other operator problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present research work has been to design an optimal MIMO LQG controller to reduce the drive-train, blades and tower mechanical stresses of a wind turbine (WT), and at the same time, to involve the WT in the grid primary frequency regulation when it is operating in full load (FL) zone. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed controller, the achieved results are compared to those obtained by a base-line controller based on a PI regulator. Simulation results show that thanks to these controllers, WT can effectively contribute to the grid frequency regulation, tracking tightly the generator power reference which depends on that frequency. Compared with the base-line controller, the LQG controller significantly reduces the mechanical stresses of the WT?s most costly components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objectives of this work have been to design and analyze a discrete Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) controller which contributes to the primary frequency control of the grid and to the reduction of the drive-train fatigue loads of a Wind Turbine (WT). The WT rotational speed and electrical power are controlled using the generator torque and the pitch angle as control variables. The rotational speed and electrical power references are generated in a higher control level depending on the wind speed and a frequency droop. The controller has been designed in Matlab® and has been simulated in Simulink®, in some linear simulation models corresponding to different operating points. These linear models have been obtained from a 5 MW WT model implemented in the commercial wind turbine simulation tool Bladed. The results validate the efficiency of the designed controller, in comparison with another discrete LQG controller which has not been designed to reduce drive-train fatigue loads. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Africa is the poorest continent in the world and this poverty is linked to the lack of access to energy of its population. A big part of inhabitants live in rural zones where the lack of energy and in particular of electricity is still more flagrant. The aim of the Micro-grids project was to promote the electrification of rural regions of Senegal by the installation of micro-grids with high content of renewable energies. This paper presents some results of this project. Surveys have been carried out in three regions of Senegal to study the needs of electrical energy of non-electrified rural villages'' households. These surveys have led to the estimation of electricity needs of the concerned households. The potential in renewable energies of the three regions has also been examined. It has been concluded that the solar energy potential is excellent while the wind energy potential can be interesting in some specific sites. The biomass could also be an efficient source if livestock farming was properly managed in the future. Moreover, many events have been carried out in the three regions to analyse the obstacles for the development of micro-grids in the Senegalese energy context, and to establish suitable solutions to overcome these obstacles. The results presented in this paper have been used to design a rural electrification kit which is described in another paper. Now the Micro-grids'' consortium hopes to set up a new project to apply the designed kit on some rural non-electrified villages. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents the design of a robust –– controller of a variable speed pitch regulated wind turbine (VSPRWT) for above rated wind speeds (ARWS). An introduction of the subject and a state of the art review for controllers in ARWS are carried out. Afterwards, the studied VSPRWT and its validated model are presented. Then, the operating zone and control scheme are described. This system is non-linear and its linearising allows for the analysis of its behaviour, thereby obtaining the discrete-time control model as well as defining the controller''s concrete objectives. The digital controller, which is designed following the pole assignment with sensitivity function shaping method, provides satisfactory simulation trial results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper proposes an improved control strategy for a three phase, four leg inverter used for the simultaneous supply of three phase and single phase AC loads in a transformerless hybrid power system (HPS) application. First, the mathematical model of the inverter is obtained by using the average technique, which allows converter systems to be rapidly and accurately simulated. Then, two control strategies are described. The first one uses the conventional dq0 frame rotating with the angular frequency ω (ω =314rad/s) and PI (proportional integral) controllers to ensure voltage and current regulation. The second one is an improved control strategy based on the decomposition of the supply three phase voltage and current into instantaneous positive, negative and homopolar sequence components using phasor representation. These three sequences are controlled independently in their own reference frames as DC signals. The positive sequence is regulated by the PI controllers in a positive reference frame, which rotates counterclockwise, while the negative sequence is regulated by the PI controllers in a negative reference frame, which rotates clockwise at the same angular frequency. Since the proposed strategy uses phasor representation, the actually superposed phasors of the homopolar sequence are spatially displaced at 120°. Then, using a negative reference frame system, the obtained DC signals are regulated by the PI controllers. Simulation results show the validity of the innovative control strategy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wind energy technology has experienced important improvements this last decade. The transition from fixed speed to variable speed wind turbines has been a significant element of these improvements. It has allowed adapting the turbine rotational speed to the wind speed variations with the aim of optimizing the aerodynamic efficiency. A classic controller that has slow dynamics relative to the mechanical dynamics of the drive train is implemented in commercial wind turbines. The objective of the work related in this paper has been to evaluate the implementation, on a test bench, of a controller whose dynamics can be adjusted to be faster and to compare in particular its aerodynamic efficiency with the conventional controller. In theory, the higher dynamics of the non-classic controller has to lead to a better efficiency. A 180kW wind turbine whose simulation model has been validated with field data is emulated on an 18kW test bench. The emulator has also been validated. Test bench trials are a very useful step between numerical simulation and trials on the real system because they allow analyzing some phenomena that may not appear in simulations without endangering the real system. The trials on the test bench show that the non-conventional controller leads to a higher aerodynamic efficiency and that this is offset by higher mechanical torque and electric power fluctuations. Nevertheless, the amplitudes of these fluctuations are relatively low compared to their rated values. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The design of a double-loop robust digital control algorithm for a wind turbine (WT) containing a doubly-fed induction machine is presented. The operating zone considered is that obtained when the rotational speed is limited to its rated value and the generated electricity has not reached its corresponding rated value. It is not particularly easy to find descriptions of controllers for this working zone in the existing literature. The rotational sampling effect may produce drive-train torque oscillations when a WT operates at constant speed. Consequently, its control system, which consists of two levels of control loops, has to be able to address these oscillations and be able to minimise flicker emission and dynamical loads in the drive train. These specifications, along with the robustness of the synthesised controller, lead to a reduced cost for the generated electricity and to a higher power quality, compared to those obtained using more classical WT control strategies that do not account for the peculiarities of the considered operation zone. The inner control loops govern the machine electromagnetic torque. The outer control-loop is synthesised using the discrete pole-placement with sensitivity function shaping method, to keep the rotational speed at its rated value and to reduce electromagnetic torque oscillations. The designed and synthesised control algorithms are tested on a simulation model validated using field data. Simulation results show that the proposed regulator reduces both flicker emission and dynamical drive-train loads, when compared to a classical PI regulator tuned to show an identical cut-off frequency and integral action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] The control of a hybrid storage system using a Three Level NPC converter is analysed. [•] A sinusoidal PWM with an offset injection is used to control the storage system. [•] The operation of the selected converter is analysed in its entire operation range. [•] The operational limits of the Three Level NPC converter are defined. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A high penetration rate of the Renewable Energy Sources (RES) can create stability, reliability and power quality problems in the main electrical grid. The microgrid should be a feasible alternative to solve these issues. As it is a weak electrical grid, the microgrid is very sensitive to any variation and consequently an Energy Storage System (ESS) is necessary to reduce their effect. A microgrid needs an ESS with high energy and power densities, but none of the currently available storage technologies satisfies both requirements at the same time. Consequently, it is necessary to associate more than one storage technology creating a Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS). The objective of this work is to compare by means of simulations three different topologies that are used to control a HESS formed by a SuperCapacitor (SC) bank and a Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB). The compared topologies are the parallel active topology, the floating topology and the Three-Level Neutral Point Clamped (3LNPC) converter topology. The analysed microgrid is formed by the mentioned HESS and different renewable energy sources. This microgrid is interconnected to a weak grid based on a Diesel Generator (DG). Two case studies have been analysed: the effect of the RES while the microgrid is connected to the weak grid and the effect of the disconnection of the microgrid from the weak grid. The different topologies are compared analysing their capability of facing the mentioned variations, their power losses and their Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The Matlab/Simulink software and the SimPowerSystems toolbox have been used to carry out the simulations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Senegal is one of the less developed countries in the world (position 158 in a list of 174 countries). 85% of its rural population does not have access to electricity and there''s no doubt that this is an important barrier for socio-economic development. In this context, the project Microgrids aims at contributing to solve this problem. This project is part of the Intelligent Energy – Europe Programme supported by the European Commission. Its objective is the promotion and dissemination of the use of micro-grids with high content of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) for the electrification of villages far away from the grid in Senegal. One of the results of the project was the analysis of rural electrification needs, which is described in another paper [Camblong H, Sarr J, Niang AT, Curea O, Alzola JA, Sylla EH, Santos M. Microgrids project, part 1: analysis of rural electrification with high content of renewable energy sources in Senegal. Renewable Energy, submitted for publication.]. This paper presents the design of an electrification kit based on the information provided by that analysis [Analyse des besoins locaux pour l''électrification de zones rurales au Sénégal. Technical report of Microgrids project; 2007. Available from: http://www.microgrids-eie.com.]. After identifying necessary previous conditions for the sustainability of any electrification project, a methodology is proposed for the design of the electrification kit. This methodology is applied to a typical village and results are extended to differently sized villages in the areas of Thies, Fatick and Kaolack. Economic considerations are also included to establish the relationship between electrification costs and paying capability of the communities. Now the Microgrids'' consortium hopes to set-up a new project to apply the designed kit on some rural non-electrified villages. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract The prediction accuracy of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery ageing models based on laboratory data is uncertain in the context of online prediction. This is due to the difficulty to reproduce realistic operating profiles in laboratory. The development of self-adaptive ageing models, which are updated using the ageing data obtained in operation, allows enhancing the online prediction accuracy and reducing the required characterisation period in laboratory. At the same time, it offers the possibility to maximise systems' profitability, providing useful information to update the energy management strategy and for predictive maintenance purposes. The present study aims at reviewing, classifying and comparing the different self-adaptive Li-ion battery ageing models proposed in the literature. Firstly, the different characteristics influencing the ability of a model to update itself are identified, and a classification is proposed for self-adaptive Li-ion battery ageing modelling methods. Secondly, specific criteria are defined to assess and compare the accuracy and computational cost of the different models, enabling a selection of the most suitable ones. Finally, relevant conclusions are drawn considering the key features required to achieve effective ageing predictions, and concise recommendations are suggested for future self-adaptive Li-ion battery ageing model development. Highlights • Self-adaptive Li-ion battery ageing models are reviewed, discussed and classified. • Specific criteria are defined for accuracy and computational cost assessment. • Most suitable self-adaptive models for battery ageing prediction are identified. • Recommendations for self-adaptive ageing models development are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The increasing use of distributed generators, which are mainly based on renewable sources, can create several issues in the operation of the electric grid. The microgrid is being analysed as a solution to the integration in the grid of the renewable sources at a high penetration level in a controlled way. The storage systems play a vital role in order to keep the energy and power balance of the microgrid. Due to the technical limitations of the currently available storage systems, it is necessary to use more than one storage technology to satisfy the requirements of the microgrid application. This work validates in simulations and experimentally the use of a Three-Level Neutral Point Clamped converter to control the power flow of a hybrid storage system formed by a SuperCapacitor and a Vanadium Redox Battery. The operation of the system is validated in two case studies in the experimental platform installed in ESTIA. The experimental results prove the validity of the proposed system as well as the designed control algorithm. The good agreement among experimental and simulation results also validates the simulation model, that can therefore be used to analyse the operation of the system in different case studies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]