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This study optimized minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) parameters to enhance the machining performance of AISI 630 steel, focusing on reducing tool-work interface temperature and surface roughness. An in-house developed MQL system utilizing vegetable oils (Azadirachta Indica, Ceiba Pentandra, Calophyllum Inophyllum) was employed. The experiments varied flow rates (700–900 ml/h), pressures (0.06–0.18 bar), and nozzle diameters (0.35–1.05 mm) on a center lathe using carbide tools. Taguchi's L18 orthogonal array and Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) were applied for optimization, while Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) supported predictive modeling. The optimal parameters for minimizing temperature were identified as 90 ml/h flow rate, 2.8 bar pressure, 1.5 mm nozzle diameter, and Calophyllum Inophyllum coolant, achieving a significant reduction to 118°C—a 40% improvement over dry machining. For surface roughness, the optimal parameters of 90 ml/h flow rate, 2.8 bar pressure, 2 mm nozzle diameter, and Calophyllum Inophyllum coolant yielded a minimum value of 0.672 µm, marking a 28% improvement. Regression models with R2 values exceeding 0.98 demonstrated strong predictive accuracy for machining responses. This research underscores the potential of MQL systems to enhance machining sustainability and performance by reducing temperature, surface roughness, and coolant usage. The study highlights the viability of vegetable oil-based coolants as eco-friendly, cost-effective alternatives, advancing sustainable manufacturing practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Lipases degrade triglycerides and are used in detergent, biodiesel production, and chemical industries. In this work, lipase-producing fungal strains were enriched. A total of 10 morphologically different fungi were isolated and screened for lipase production. The isolated indigenous Aspergillus niger LP4 utilized a mixture of Calophyllum inophyllum oilcake and coconut oil cake (1:1), showing greater lipase production (127.5 ± 5.5 U/g substrate) than Calophyllum inophyllum oil cake (120.2 ± 3.4 U/g substrate) and coconut oil cake (103 ± 1.8 U/g substrate). A one-variableat-a-time approach revealed optimum pH at 6.5 (139.2 ± 4.5 U/g substrate), 30 °C (152.4 ± 7.3 U/g substrate), 6% (v/w) inoculums (174.1 ± 5.4 U/g substrate), and 60% moisture content (180.5 ± 3.3 U/g substrate). After screening bioprocess variables by the traditional method, the selected three variables (pH, inoculum concentration, and moisture level) were optimized by the central composite design experiment. The central composite design gave 2.1-fold more lipase production compared to an unoptimized medium. The F-value of the designed model was 12.98, and the p-value was 0.0002. In this model, the terms A, B, C, A2, and C2 were significant model terms. The crude lipase showed exceptional compatibility with detergents, improved wash performance, and released free fatty acids from the wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

This study investigates the Fukugi (Garcinia subelliptica) windbreak landscapes on Iriomote Island through case studies in two of its oldest villages, Sonai and Hoshitate. These windbreak forests, integral to the cultural landscape of Okinawa, offer both ecological and socio-economic benefits. Using field measurements and surveys, the research analyzes the distribution, growth patterns, and historical significance of Fukugi groves within the village setting and compares naturally regenerated forests with those planted by humans. The findings underscore the importance of Fukugi trees in promoting sustainable rural landscapes, where they dominate the local ecosystem of rural settlements. Fukugi windbreak landscapes in Okinawa are characterized by trees encircling homes on all four sides, distinguishing them from homestead windbreaks found in other regions of Japan. Surveys from the two villages suggest that the original homestead windbreak forests in the Yaeyama region contain a diverse mix of tree species, with Fukugi and Calophyllum inophyllum being predominant, along with other useful species like Diospyros ferrea and Podocarpus macrophyllus. These species were selected not only for their windbreak capabilities but also for timber and home furniture production. The study's findings on naturally regenerated Fukugi groups support the hypothesis that the cultivation of Fukugi as a windbreak species originated in the Yaeyama region and likely spread to other parts of Okinawa, influencing both the ecological and cultural evolution of the region's landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Calophyllum inophyllum is a superior choice for sustainable biodiesel production. This tree is highly productive, adaptable to various land types, and has a significant potential for carbon sequestration. This study aimed to determine carbon storage variation in biomass, litter, and soil among C. inophyllum provenances from eight islands in Indonesia; identify the best allometric model for estimating total plant biomass carbon stock; and assess the impact of soil physicochemical properties and litter fiber content on total carbon stock. Plant, litter and soil samples were purposively selected from a total of 32 sample points of 8 provenances. Analysis of variance was carried out to determine variations among provenances on carbon storage in plant biomass and its components (stems, branches, twigs, leaves, stumps, and roots), in litter, as well as in soil organic carbon. The best allometric equation was selected to estimate the total plant biomass carbon based on the value of coefficient determination (R2) and RMSE (Root Mean Square Error). Redundancy Analysis (RDA) was carried out to determine the effect of the soil physicochemical properties and litter fiber content on total biomass carbon and total soil organic carbon followed by a partial analysis (Variation Partitioning Analysis). The results of this study showed that variations on carbon storage in plant biomass and its components, in litter, as well as in soil organic carbon were not significantly different among the provenances. The tBC averaged 13.46 tons ha−1, the litter carbon 4.75 tons ha−1, and tSOC 75.91 ton ha−1 with most biomass carbon stored in trunks (31.02%) and most of carbon stock was stored as tSOC (81%). Quadratic (tBC = 0,4172DBH2 - 1,3433DBH + 2,3498) was the best allometric model for estimating carbon storage on plant biomass with diameter at breast height (DBH) as a predictor variable. Most of the variation in total carbon stock was influenced by soil chemical properties (76%) followed by soil physical properties (11%) and litter fiber content (5%). This study implies that the development of C. inophyllum in Indonesia for carbon storage may utilize seeds or planting materials from any origin, disregarding provenances. Applying organic and/or mineral nutrients (N, P, and K) will increase carbon stock in C. inophyllum plantations. This study underscores the significance of assessing C. inophyllum carbon stocks to enhance its role in establishing climate change policies and promoting sustainable resource management. more...

Calophyllum inophyllum L is a plant found on the coast and is known to have pharmacological effects such as anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-viral and anti-inflammatory. This study aimed to determine the ability of the ethanolic extract of the sampling seed shells as a spermicide for albino mice (Mus musculus), determine the growth inhibition of Candida albicans, and identify its compounds. The extraction of the C. inophyllum L seed shell was carried out by maceration. The quality of motility and abnormal morphology of mice sperms were observed under the microscope. The fungus inhibition assay was carried out by diffusion agar, and the identification of the active compounds by Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry/Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS-MS). Sperm motility in ethanolic extract at the concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5% were 10.85, 10.05, and 10.85%, respectively, and the abnormal morphology was 63.50, 65.62, and 72.67%, respectively. The partition results of the n-hexane extract showed that motility and abnormal morphology values at the concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5% were 79.21 and 79.93%, and the abnormal morphology was 8.49, 4.30 and 0.00%, respectively. Fraction F6 at the concentration of 0.3% showed that its motility was 0.00% and abnormal morphology was 65.86%, so it did not provide inhibition against the C. albicans fungus. Fraction F6 contained compounds that had spermicidal potential were 2,5-Dioxo-1-pyrrolidinyl N-[(benzyloxy) carbonyl]-D-phenylalaninate, raubasine, and N-(4-{[2,4-Diamino-7,8-dyhydro-6 pteridinyl) methyl] (methyl) amino} benzoyl) Lglutamic acid or methotrexate through to cytotoxic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Biodiesel made from oil-bearing crops including Jatropha, Pongamia, Calophyllum Inophyllum, and others has elisions been the subject of extensive research over the past ten years. Still, not much research has been done on the idea of using oilseeds like jackfruit to make biodiesel. The objective of the experiment is to enhance the efficiency and downgrade emission by identifying the NOx and reducing it. In this experimental work, diesel and various blends such as (pine oil (PO), Jack Fruit Methyl Ester (JFME), Low cetane Jack fruit oil, mixture of Pine Oil, coconut shell nano additives with Pine oil and Jack Fruit Methyl Ester (JFOPOCS)) were utilised for investigating the performance of diesel engine. The effects signify that PO20 and JFO40 are both useful. There were no modifications made to the diesel engine. Conversely, NOX has been identified. All blends of pine oil and biodiesel rise consistently when compared to diesel. With the exception of nitrogen oxides, tertiary blends and the application of break thermal efficiency in the third phase can reduce all other emissions. Finally, comprehensive examination of the significant testing outcomes, it was determined that JFO40PO20CS60 could be utilised as an appropriate biofuel mixture for diesel engines functioning at optimal performance levels Nano Coconut Shell Additive. A biofuel mixture of Pine Oil 20%, Jack Fruit Oil 40%, and Coconut Shell Nano additive 60 ppm is a sustainable choice for usage in a Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDi) engine with the optimal parameters, according to extensive testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Biodiesel serves as a renewable, eco-friendly alternative fuel. Its production relies on converting triglyceride sources into methyl esters through transesterification. These triglycerides can be sourced from vegetable oils and animal fats. Previous studies often relied on acids and bases as catalysts. However, there's a lack of research exploring the use of modified zeolite and bentonite as catalysts, which hold the promise of higher yields compared to previous studies. In this study, biodiesel was derived from Calophyllum inophyllum via esterification and transesterification processes. Characterization of these catalysts was done using XRD and FTIR analyses. Transesterification to produce biodiesel occurred at temperatures ranging from 50 to 70℃ over a reaction period of 5 hours. The largest yield of biodiesel was obtained at 60℃, with 88.19% using modified zeolite catalyst, 78.84% using modified bentonite catalyst, and 82.36% using a blend of modified zeolite and bentonite catalysts in a 1:1 ratio. Biodiesel resulting from the highest yield using modified zeolite catalyst underwent characteristic testing in accordance with SNI standards. The findings revealed a density of 887 kg/m3, viscosity of 5.633 mm2/s, cetane number of 53, flash point at 121℃, and methyl ester content of 94.55%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Calophyllum inophyllum (C. inophyllum), or Nyamplung, seeds contain various active compounds. Using C. inophyllum seeds as a source of flavonoids for natural antioxidants can increase their economic value and provide alternative compounds for cosmetics, including lotions. This study applied maceration and ultrasonic methods using ethanol to extract the active compounds from the C. inophyllum seeds. The study optimised extracting the antioxidant components from C. inophyllum seeds using response surface methodology.METHODS: The experimental design used in this study was response surface methodology with a Box–Behnken design to model the influence of variables on the response of the yield and antioxidant activity of extracts obtained through maceration and ultrasonic extraction and to model lotion formulation. The extraction methods were designed with three variables (extraction time, solvent concentration, and sample–solvent ratio) and three levels (low, medium, and high), and the compounds in the extracts were analysed. Lotion formulation was designed with three variables (C. inophyllum seed extract, Tween 80, and carbomer) and three levels (low, medium, and high), and the quality of the lotion product (antioxidant activity and viscosity) was analysed.Results: The C. inophyllum seed extract obtained through maceration had stronger antioxidant activity than that obtained using the ultrasonic method, with 50 per cent inhibition concentration values of 13.154 and 16.343 part per million, respectively. Characterisation with gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy revealed ten compounds with major percentage values, among them 2''-(trimethylsilyl)oxy-3,4,4'',5- tetramethoxychalcone (49.70 per cent). This compound played an important role in enhancing antioxidant activity in C. inophyllum seeds extracted through maceration, whereas butylated hydroxytoluene (9.16 per cent) was important in the extract obtained using the ultrasonic method. The lotion produced from the C. inophyllum seed extract contained high antioxidant activity with a 50 per cent inhibition concentration of 4.621 part per million; the toxicity text showed it was safe to be used (50 per cent lethal concentration of 789 grams per millilitre).CONCLUSION: The results showed the effectiveness of this approach in determining the optimal conditions to maximise antioxidant content. The maceration method better ability enhanced the antioxidant activity capacity of C. inophyllum seeds compared to the ultrasonic method, as indicated by the response surface method. Both extraction methods produced the same secondary metabolite compounds with a promising reservoir of antioxidant compounds. In addition, the findings of this study showed the high antioxidant activity of C. inophyllum seed extract lotion, which could be developed for pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and other applications. more...

The main challenges with using biodiesel in CI engines are higher NOx emissions and reduced brake thermal efficiency. These biodiesel-related issues can be handled by concurrently introducing gaseous fuels along with primary fuel into CI engines. This study examines the effects of hydrogen in a dual fuel mode operation with diesel and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel blend (B20) at different compression ratios on the engine's performance, combustion, and emission characteristics. A single-cylinder, 4-stroke, variable compression ratio engine operating at 1500 rpm was used for the research. A standard compression ratio (SCR) of 17.5 and a modified compression ratio (MCR) of 15.5 at a constant hydrogen flow rate of 6 L per minute (lpm) were used with diesel and B 20. The addition of hydrogen with diesel and B20 resulted in higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate when compared to pure diesel and B20 operation. This resulted in a shorter delay period (by an average of 9.4 % and 7.1 %) with lower peak pressure than pure diesel and B20 operation. During the dual fuel mode of H 2 with B 20 at a modified compression ratio, the maximum heat release rate was decreased and its occurrence was retarded. NO x , UBHC, and CO emissions of the engine were decreased significantly by an average of 20.8% 43.7, %, and 22 % respectively with 37.7 % increase in smoke opacity. The increase in NOx emission with the use of H 2 with diesel was reduced by operating H 2 with B20 and at a reduced compression ratio. This lower emission was achieved with a compromise of a marginal decrease in engine brake thermal efficiency. • The performance of hydrogen-enriched biodiesel and diesel at varied compression ratios. • Methodology to reduce the increased NOx emission resulting from the operation of hydrogen with diesel and biodiesel. • Reduction in NOx emission with hydrogen during dual fuel operation with biodiesel blend at reduced compression ratio. • B20 blend of Calophyllum inophyllum as promising alternative fuel along with hydrogen in dual fuel mode. • Reduction in UBHC, and CO emissions with hydrogen during dual fuel mode with biodiesel blend at reduced compression ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

This study aimed to reduce smoke and NOx emissions in a diesel engine fuelled with a 20% blend of Calophyllum inophyllum and Prosopis juliflora biodiesel (B20) with neat diesel, supplemented with acetylene at flow rates of 1, 2, and 3 liters per minute (lpm) in dual-fuel mode. Using the Grey-Taguchi method and an L9 (3^3) orthogonal array, the effects of compression ratio, fuel type, and acetylene flow rate were examined. Regression models were developed to predict brake thermal efficiency, smoke, and NOx emissions based on these controllable factors. The study found that the optimal individual values for NOx, brake thermal efficiency, and smoke were 2353 ppm, 31.52%, and 48.7 ppm, respectively. The best-combined results were achieved with a compression ratio of 17.5 and an acetylene flow rate of 3 lpm using the CI20 blend. The findings demonstrated significant improvements in output response factors when the optimal combination was applied, as validated by experimental and artificial neural network (ANN) simulations. The Grey-Taguchi approach proved effective in reducing emissions while enhancing engine performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

This study used the Soxhlet apparatus to investigate honne oil (HO) extraction optimization. Twenty-four (24) experiments were formulated using the D-optimal design considering extraction time (2 - 6 h), honne weight (20 - 60 g), and particle size using acetone. The yield, functional groups, physical and chemical properties, and fatty acid composition of the HO were assessed. The optimal extraction conditions established were a time of 6 h, fine particle size, and honne weight of 20 g with a high HO yield of 70.85 wt.%. The HO had an acid value and kinematic viscosity of 35.68 mg KOH/g oil and 52.96 mm²/s, respectively. The observed coefficient of determination of 0.9870 suggests that the model developed for the process is efficient. The functional groups and fatty acids of the HO confirm that it is highly unsaturated with the regions of trans-unsaturation bending vibrations and double bond stretching. The properties of the HO demonstrate that it could be used to produce biodiesel, notwithstanding the necessity for pretreatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Copyright of Global Journal of Environmental Science & Management (GJESM) is the property of Global Journal of Environmental Science & Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.) more...

Javan lutung (Trachypithecus auratus) is an endemic primate species which mostly occurs in protected areas, such as the Bandealit Resort of Meru Betiri National Park (MBNP), East Java, Indonesia. However, scientific information related to the habitat characteristics of T. auratus in this resort is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the habitat characteristics of T. auratus based on the vegetation stratification in the Bandealit coastal forest of MBNP. This research was conducted in March, April, May, and September 2022 using the scan sampling methods at two sites, including Site I (Camping Ground Block) and Site II (Wisma Block). The data on tree species was collected using a plot method (40 m x 20 m). Furthermore, we used the Spatially Explicit Individual-based Forest Simulator (SexI-FS) version 2.1.0 to construct the stratification profile. Based on the results, there were 17 individuals of T. auratus found in two sites along the observation. This species is recorded as occupying seven tree species, including Alstonia scholaris, A. spectabilis, Calophyllum inophyllum, Dracontomelon sp., Pongamia pinnata, Syzigium sp. and Terminalia catappa. According to stratification, T. auratus was found in Stratum B (21-30 m) to Stratum C (5-20 m) at all sites. Furthermore, this species was widely distributed in Stratum C for locomotion, foraging, social activities and self-protection. Meanwhile, T. auratus was observed using A. spectabilis in Stratum B as a sleeping tree in the afternoon and evening. These results can be the basis for in-situ conservation strategies for T. auratus species in MBNP, particularly for habitat management based on occupied vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Selecting proper tree species for revegetation is important for restoring tropical peatland. Tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) has been suggested one of the promising native species in Indonesia for the revegetation of tropical peatland; however, there is a lack of understanding of its growth in peat soil with different groundwater levels. We investigated the survival rate, plant height, number of leaves, root collar diameter, and dry biomass of tamanu seedlings grown in peat soil with different groundwater levels using a randomized block design in a water tank. The study involved five groundwater level treatments and 12 tree-level replicates each: M0 (non-groundwater level, control); M1 (−15 cm below the soil surface); M2 (−10 cm); M3 (−5 cm); and M4 (0 cm, soil surface level). The results showed that all tamanu seedlings survived in every treatment. However, their plant height, number of leaves, and root collar diameter growth were significantly inhibited in the highest groundwater level condition (M4, 0 cm) at 81 days after sowing, while their growth in −15 cm of groundwater level (M1) was as good as the growth in the fully drained conditions in M0 (control). This result indicates that the groundwater level should not be higher than −15 cm for the growth of tamanu. Considering that peatlands in Indonesia are assessed to be degraded when the groundwater level is lower than −40 cm, this study suggests that maintaining groundwater levels between −40 cm and −15 cm in peatland is the best condition for rapid growth of early tamanu seedlings while protecting peatlands. Further studies are needed to extend the range of water levels and water treatment duration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Variation in plant dispersal capabilities strongly influences the assembly of island plant communities. Many tropical plants have seeds capable of long‐distance, often oceanic, dispersal; in some cases, these taxa speciate into island interior endemics with reduced dispersal capabilities, though whether this is a general pattern is debated. Flotation times are highly variable among plants with oceanic dispersal and between such plants and their inland congeners. Here, we experimentally compared salt‐water flotation in three woody plant genera in Palau, Micronesia, comparing broadly distributed and island endemic species within each genus. The widespread Calophyllum inophyllum (with oceanic and vertebrate dispersal), C. soulattri (vertebrate dispersal), and Terminalia catappa had substantially longer flotation than their inland endemic relatives C. pelewense and T. crassipes. This supports the "Loss of dispersal ability" hypothesis for Calophyllum though, for Terminalia, additional phylogenetic information is needed to determine T. crassipes' sister species. Seed flotation in the widespread, oceanic dispersed Pandanus tectorius did not significantly differ from that of the Palau endemics P. palawensis and P. aimiriikensis. Our results highlight that differences among taxa in dispersal modes, speciation modes, and their interactions may influence the assembly of island floras. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The rising fuel demand, driven by expanding logistical infrastructure, transportation sector growth, and the need for faster transport modes, has led to significant urban sprawl and vehicle emissions, posing serious threats to air quality and human health. Chronic exposure to vehicle emissions is linked to severe health issues such as lung cancer, asthma, cardio-respiratory problems, hypersensitivity, and hypertension. In response, the quest for alternative fuels from renewable resources, particularly biodiesel, has gained momentum. Biodiesel, derived from waste seed oil, animal fat, and vegetable oil, presents a promising substitute for traditional diesel fuel. This study investigates the effects of bl enhances diesel with up to 20% Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC), an oxygenated additive, to enhance ignition properties. Engine performance and emissions were assessed under standard operational conditions. Results indicated that pure biodiesel achieved a maximum cylinder pressure 1.73% higher than diesel. Increasing DMC content in the biodiesel blend resulted in a 21.54% higher Heat Release Rate (HRR) and a 17.75% improvement in brake thermal efficiency compared to pure biodiesel at higher loads. However, the higher DMC blend also increased NOx emissions by 4.2% while significantly reducing smoke, hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions by 32.5%, 36.36%, and 35.65% respectively, compared to diesel at maximum load. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Purpose: The current study focuses on measuring the level of vibration and noise produced by a direct injection diesel engine when running on a mixture of molybdenum trioxide (MoO3ript>) nanoparticles and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel (B20). Methods: The nanoparticles were used in an amount of 75 ppm and mixed with a surfactant and dispersant. In addition, the prepared fuel samples were tested on a diesel engine to investigate the vibration and noise characteristics by changing the injection pressures to 200 bar, 220 bar and 240 bar. Results and conclusion: The addition of nanoparticles to B20 has significantly reduced vibration and noise, especially when using nanofuel enriched with dispersants. In addition, the increased pressure during fuel injection resulted in reduced vibration and noise levels. Using B20 + MoO3 75 ppm + Dispersant 75 ppm fuel blend gave the most favourable results regarding RMS velocity and noise levels compared to the base diesel fuel. The progressive reduction in vibration and noise levels was seen as a result of the increased injection pressure. At a pressure of 240 bar, the B20 + MoO3 75 ppm + dispersant 75 ppm has shown a lower vibration and noise intensity than diesel and other fuel samples. The RMS velocity of RMS noise of B20 + MoO3 75 ppm + dispersant 75 ppm are 0.591 m/s, 0.568 m/s, and 0.491 m/s at 200 bar, 220 bar and 240 bar while the RMS noise is 68.266 dB (A), 66.283 dB (A), and 65.857 dB (A) respectively. The most decrease in vibration and noise was 28.76% and 9.78%, respectively compared to regular diesel for B20 + MoO3 75 ppm + dispersant 75 ppm at 240 bar. Finally, the kurtosis and skewness of the vibration data are within the normal range, which indicates that the distribution corresponds to the ideal normal distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Crude nyamplung Calophyllum inophyllum is a potential non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production. Calophyllum Inophyllum oil (CCIO) is a non-edible oil that has a high content of triglyceride (TG) and free fatty acid (FFA). This study aims to optimize microwave-assisted power and extraction time of triglyceride purification from C. inophyllum crude oil for biodiesel. This work deployed Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms consisting of eight Machine Learning (ML) algorithms and found the most accurate model, then optimized using the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm.The result of machine learning modelling Random Forest achieved higher accuracy in R-Square and lower Mean Square Error (MSE) than any other models. Overall, in R-Square average across all variables was 0.949 ± 0.026 and the MSE average of 0.097 ± 0.068. This result can be interpreted as a mean deviation between the predicted value and an accurate value of less than 0.1 for all variables. The optimum of the TG compound resulted in the power of 462.3 W and time of 39.12 min that equalled at 84.02% and FFA equalled at 6.92%. The TG have increased by 11% from the reference range, which states conventional methods from crude oil. Comparison with the MAE method has a minimum fitness value difference of 0.0006 but has a smaller accuracy of less than 1%. Implementing this prediction and optimization method can shorten the extraction time by 5.8 min and reduce energy consumption or system work by 130 kJ. This method can be used for input parameter model prediction and parameter optimization in purification for biodiesel feedstock. Further research can be carried out using other artificial intelligence methods to optimize biodiesel production. more...

The transesterification of Calophyllum inophyllum seed oil into biodiesel using Javanese Moringa oleifera leaf ash catalyst with various reaction conditions has been completed. MA-500 (Moringa ash at 500°C for 3 h) and MA-900 (Moringa ash at 900°C for 3 h) catalysts were obtained by grinding Javanese old Moringa oleifera leaf (MP) and then calcined for 3 h at 500 and 900°C. The crude Calophyllum inophyllum seed oil was degummed (OD) prior to continue the esterification process (ODE). The MA-500 and MA-900 catalysts were tested for their activity and selectivity through the ODE transesterification with various catalyst weights (3, 6, and 9% (w/w)), reaction temperature (55, 60, and 65°C), oil: methanol mole ratio (1:3, 1:6, and 1:9), and reaction time (60, 90, 120, and 150 minutes). The results showed that the MA-500 and MA-900 catalysts contained 18.17% and 52.91% Ca respectively. The esterification reaction could reduce FFA levels to 89.82%, from 19.46% to 1.98%. ODE transesterification with MA-900 catalyst optimum reaction conditions with a catalyst weight of 3%, reaction temperature of 60°C, oil: methanol mole ratio of 1:9, and reaction time of 120 min, 76.17% FAME yield was observed. The MA-900 catalyst has the potential to be an effective green catalyst. more...

Vegetable oils are a highly promising alternative to produce various lubricants, owing to their biodegradability and eco-friendliness. In comparison to mineral oil, these oils possess a higher flash point and viscosity index, along with superior lubricating properties. Additionally, most of the vegetable oils are easily accessible in local markets in India. However, their industrial application is limited by poor thermal and oxidative stability, which can be addressed through chemical modification, the addition of appropriate additives, or by blending these oils. Greases, characterized by their semi-solid consistency, are widely used lubricants. Most of the grease production is based on mineral oils as base oil and lithium soap as a thickener. These materials are not only non-biodegradable but also scarce and have health implications. Consequently, biodegradable grease represents an eco-friendly and healthy alternative. Grease made using vegetable oils with the required properties has the potential to bring about revolutionary changes. The present work focuses on the feasibility of using chemically modified blended rice bran oil (RBO) and Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CIO) as a bio-lubricant. The oils undergo a two-step modification process, involving a transesterification reaction followed by epoxidation. Significant improvements have been observed in the chemical properties (acid, peroxide, and iodine values) of transesterified epoxidized rice bran oil Calophyllum inophyllum oil mixture–50:50 (ETRCIO) when compared with Unmodified Rice bran oil Calophyllum inophyllum oil mixture–50:50 (RCIO). The acid value, peroxide value, and iodine value improved by 91.66%, 87.08%, and 15.78% respectively. The rheological, tribological, and chemical properties of the blended samples have been evaluated and compared to pure oils using American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and Indian Standards (IS). Additionally, ETRCIO was used to develop a bio-grease, and its tribological properties were extensively analyzed. The mean coefficient of friction (COF) and wear scar diameter (WSD) of the ETRCIO grease sample improved by 10.20% and 29.32% respectively when compared with that of commercially available grease. These findings indicate that the ETRCIO bio-grease exhibits superior tribological properties in comparison to commercially available grease. Research highlights: • The study explores the potential of vegetable oils as a biodegradable and environmentally friendly alternative for producing lubricants, specifically focusing on rice bran oil and Calophyllum inophyllum oil. • The oils undergo a two-step chemical modification process (transesterification followed by epoxidation) to improve their thermal and oxidative stability, making them suitable for industrial use. • The chemically modified and blended oils showed significantly improved chemical properties. • The rheological, tribological, and chemical properties of the blended samples were evaluated according to ASTM, and IS standards and compared with those of pure oils. • A bio-grease was formulated using these chemically modified oils, exhibiting better tribological properties than commercially available grease, indicating its potential as an eco-friendly and health-conscious alternative to traditional mineral oil-based greases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Calophyllum inophyllum L. has been used for many generations by Pacific Islanders because of its numerous health and aesthetic advantages. The leaves, stems, roots, fruits, flowers, and seeds of this plant contain significant phytochemicals, including flavonoids, coumarins, fatty acids, and xanthones, which have been shown to have wound healing, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiaging, anti-arthritic, anti-cancer, anti-proliferative, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial, and anti-HIV effects. The chemical profiles and bioactive potential may vary due to different extraction techniques, plant parts, and geographical origins. Extraction is the essential first step in the analysis of bioactive compounds that leads to further separation, identification, and characterization. Conventional methods like maceration, Soxhlet, and percolation are often used to extract bioactive compounds from C. inophyllum. However, little study has been carried out on non-conventional methods such as pressured liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction. The SFE method can be used to extract bioactive compounds from C. inophyllum to retain their pharmacological properties for application in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Tamanu oil has traditionally been used to treat various skin problems. The oil has wound-healing and skin-regenerating capabilities and encourages the growth of new skin cells, all of which are helpful for fading scars and hyperpigmentation, as well as promoting an all-around glow. The strong nutty odor and high viscosity are the major disadvantages associated with its application. The aim of this study was to create bigels using tamanu oil for its anti-scarring properties and predict the possible mechanism of action through the help of molecular docking studies. In silico studies were performed to analyze the binding affinity of the protein with the drug, and the anti-scarring activity was established using a full-thickness excision wound model. In silico studies revealed that the components inophyllum C, 4-norlanosta-17(20),24-diene-11,16-diol-21-oic acid, 3-oxo-16,21-lactone, calanolide A, and calophyllolide had docking scores of −11.3 kcal/mol, −11.1 kcal/mol, −9.8 kcal/mol, and −8.6 kcal/mol, respectively, with the cytokine TGF-β1 receptor. Bigels were prepared with tamanu oil ranging from 5 to 20% along with micronized xanthan gum and evaluated for their pH, viscosity, and spreadability. An acute dermal irritation study in rabbits showed no irritation, erythema, eschar, or edema. In vivo excisional wound-healing studies performed on Wistar rats and subsequent histopathological studies showed that bigels had better healing properties when compared to the commercial formulation (MurivennaTM oil). This study substantiates the wound-healing and scar reduction potential of tamanu oil bigels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The current work is focused on the solubility and catalytic behaviour of K2CO3, and Na2CO3 during the synthesis of biodiesel from Calophyllum Inophyllum oil (CIO) in methanol. The solubility of K2CO3, and Na2CO3 in methanol is not straight forward, as both form their respective methoxides and bicarbonates on solubility in methanol. Therefore to understand catalytic behaviour of both carbonates, it is essential to estimate sodium and potassium methoxides, and bicarbonates formed at different temperatures. In this regard, the catalytic behaviour of both carbonates was studied between 50 °C to 65 °C. Therefore, solubility behaviour of both carbonates explored during the synthesis of biodiesel from CIO by transesterification process. At higher temperature, the concentration of potassium and sodium methoxides decreased and their bicarbonate concentration increased. This solubility behaviour found to be more useful to differentiate homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic route for biodiesel synthesis. At higher temperature, 65 °C, K2CO3, and Na2CO3 exhibited heterogeneous catalytic behaviour, but Na2CO3 showed relatively higher heterogeneous catalytic behaviour as it form higher concentration of insoluble sodium bicarbonate. Therefore, Na2CO3 could be a better heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel synthesis at higher temperatures, 65 °C, as it produces low concentration of sodium methoxide which is an advantage from post biodiesel treatment standpoint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

A new chromanone derivative, calophylloidic acid B (2), was isolated from Calophyllum inophyllum resin in Lombok, Indonesia. The structure of the new compound was elucidated as a structural isomer of calophylloidic acid A (1), which we had previously isolated from Indonesian C. inophyllum resin. It exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Conventional fuels are the transportation sector's major occupants since they provide more power and efficiency with harmful environmental pollution. Researchers have focused on alternative and suitable solutions over a decade, considering the depletion of conventional fuels and environmental pollution. The present work is trying to explore an alternative solution resulting from Calophyllum inophyllum seed oil. This oil is extracted mechanically from seeds and the acid value is found to be very high. Acid esterification of oil is done with diluted H2SO4 to reduce the acid oil value of oil to make the oil suitable for the transesterification process. Here, a less expensive and abundantly available CaO catalyst is synthesized from wastages of gas industries. Further, the independent factors of transesterification, such as the molar ratio of methanol and oil, type and concentration of the process catalyst, process temperature, stirring rate and process time need to be optimized to get maximum biodiesel yield through the process. The process is optimized by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) through Box Behnken Design with minimum experimental runs. The optimization results show that optimum values are 9 : 1, 50°C and 3 wt % of molar ratio of methanol and oil, process temperature and concentration of catalyst, respectively. During this process, the Analysis of Variance ANOVA table was also employed to identify the significance and fitness of the model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

One novel chromanone acid derivative, namely inocalophylline C (1), together with one known compound calophyllolide (2), were isolated from the methanolic extract of nut oil resin of Calophyllum inophyllum L., a medicinal plant widely distributed in Vietnam. The isolated compound structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods and the absolute configuration of 1 was established by the single-crystal X-ray crystallography as ethyl (R) 3-((2 R,3R,6R)-4-hydroxy-2,3-dimethyl-6-((R)-5-methyl-2-(prop-1-en-2-yl)hex-4-en-1-yl)-6-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl)-5,7-dioxo-3,5,6,7-tetrahydro-2H-chromen-8-yl)-3-phenylpropanoate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Oxidative stress contributes to impairment of skin health, the wound healing process, and pathologies such as psoriasis or skin cancer. Five Polynesian medicinal plants, among the most traditionally used for skin care (pimples, wounds, burns, dermatoses) are studied herein for their antioxidant properties: Calophyllum inophyllum, Gardenia taitensis, Curcuma longa, Cordia subcordata, and Ficus prolixa. Plant extracts were submitted to in vitro bioassays related to antioxidant properties and their bioactive constituents were identified by a metabolomic analytical approach. High performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) analysis was performed leading to the characterization of 61 metabolites. Compounds annotated for F. prolixa and C. subcordata extracts were reported for the first time. Antioxidant properties were evaluated by total phenolic content (TPC), free radical scavenging DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl), and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power activity (FRAP) assays. F. prolixa extract was the most active one and showed antioxidant intracellular activity on keratinocytes by Anti Oxydant Power 1 assay. Online HPLC-DPPH allowed the identification of phenolic bioactive compounds such as quercetin-O-rhamnoside, rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid, procyanidins, epicatechin, 5-O-caffeoylshikimic acid, and curcumin as being responsible for the scavenging properties of these plant extracts. These results highlight the potential of F. prolixa aerial roots as a source of antioxidants for skin care applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to cancer growth and metastasis. Using antioxidants to modulate cellular ROS levels is a promisingstrategy for cancer prevention and treatment. Calophyllum inophyllum L., or tamanu, is a medicinal plant renowned for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties in traditional medicine systems. However, the anticancer effects of C. inophyllum extract on cellular ROS remain unexplored. This study represents the first report on such effects and provides the potential mechanisms underlying the anticancer properties of C. inophyllum extract. The branches of C. inophyllum were extracted, and the extract was comprehensively analyzed for phytochemical constituents, antioxidant capacity, total phenolic content, and total flavonoid content. Subsequently, the extract's potential anticancer properties were evaluated using patient-derived cells from breast and lung cancer. The results revealed that the C. inophyllum extract possesses notable antioxidant activity and demonstrated no cytotoxicity within the initial 24 h of treatment. However, after 72 h, it exhibited significant antiproliferative effects. Moreover, the extract exhibited inhibitory properties against migration and invasion at concentrations below the IC50, which corresponded to the expression of related genes. Notably, these effects correlated with the reduction of intracellular ROS levels. Overall, our findings highlight the anticancer potential of C. inophyllum extract, emphasize its ability to modulate cellular ROS levels and target key molecular pathways involved in cancer progression. This study sheds light on the promising therapeutic implications of C. inophyllum extract as a novel agent for cancer treatment, which is safe for normal cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Indonesian Calophyllum inophyllum resin and its main component, calophylloidic acid A (1), have potent antibacterial activity against foodborne pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. However, their low water solubility makes their practical use difficult. Here, we investigated the formation of inclusion complexes of C. inophyllum resin and 1 with cyclodextrins (CDs). The inclusion complexes of C. inophyllum resin or 1 with CDs exhibited enhanced water solubility and antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli compared to those of uncomplexed C. inophyllum resin or 1. Among the analyzed samples, a-CD inclusion complexes exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity. Furthermore, 1 and a-CD formed inclusion complexes at a molar ratio of 1:1. The improved water-solubilities and good antibacterial activity of the inclusion complexes will allow for their future application against foodborne pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Introduction: Tinospora smilacina is a native plant used in traditional medicine by First Nations peoples in Australia to treat inflammation. In our previous study, an optimised Calophyllum inophyllum seed oil (CSO) nanoemulsion (NE) showed improved biomedical activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant activity, cell viability and in vitro wound healing efficacy compared to CSO. Methods: In this study, a stable NE formulation combining T. smilacina water extract (TSWE) and CSO in a nanoemulsion (CTNE) was prepared to integrate the bioactive compounds in both native plants and improve wound healing efficacy. D-optimal mixture design was used to optimise the physicochemical characteristics of the CTNE, including droplet size and polydispersity index (PDI). Cell viability and in vitro wound healing studies were done in the presence of CTNE, TSWE and CSO against a clone of baby hamster kidney fibroblasts (BHK-21 cell clone BSR-T7/5). Results: The optimised CTNE had a 24 ± 5 nm particle size and 0.21± 0.02 PDI value and was stable after four weeks each at 4 °C and room temperature. According to the results, incorporating TSWE into CTNE improved its antioxidant activity, cell viability, and ability to promote wound healing. The study also revealed that TSWE has > 6% higher antioxidant activity than CSO. While CTNE did not significantly impact mammalian cell viability, it exhibited wound-healing properties in the BSR cell line during in vitro testing. These findings suggest that adding TSWE may enhance CTNE's potential as a wound-healing treatment. Conclusion: This is the first study demonstrating NE formulation in which two different plant extracts were used in the aqueous and oil phases with improved biomedical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The Calophylluminophyllum species annually produces a large volume of cylindrical fruits, which accumulate on the soil because they do not have nutritional value. This study sought to enable the use of this biomass by producing activated biochar with zinc chloride as an activating agent for further application as an adsorbent in batch and fixed bed columns. Different methodologies were used to characterize the precursor and the pyrolyzed material. Morphological changes were observed with the emergence of new spaces. The carbonaceous material had a surface area of 468 m2 g−1, Dp = 2.7 nm, and VT = 3.155 × 10−1 cm3 g−1. Scientific and isothermal studies of the adsorption of the diuron were conducted at the natural pH of the solution and adsorbent dosage of 0.75 g L−1. The kinetic curves showed a good fit to the Avrami fractional order model, with equilibrium reached after 150 min, regardless of the diuron concentration. The Liu heterogeneous surface model well represented the isothermal curves. By raising the temperature, adsorption was encouraged, and at 318 K, the Liu Qmax was reached at 250.1 mg g−1. Based on the Liu equilibrium constant, the nonlinear van't Hoff equation was employed, and the ΔG° were < 0 from 298 to 328 K; the process was exothermic nature (ΔH0 = −46.40 kJ mol−1). Finally, the carbonaceous adsorbent showed good removal performance (63.45%) compared to a mixture containing different herbicides used to control weeds. The stoichiometric column capacity (qeq) was 13.30 and 16.61 mg g−1 for concentrations of 100 and 200 mg L−1, respectively. The length of the mass transfer zone was 5.326 cm (100 mg L−1) and 4.946 cm (200 mg L−1). This makes employing the leftover fruits of the Calophyllum inophyllum species as biomass for creating highly porous adsorbents a very effective and promising option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

In this experimental investigation, graphene nano additive was used at different proportions from 25 to 100ppm with an interval of 25ppm. It was then dispersed into the neat diesel and 20% Calophyllum inophyllum blend and its properties were determined. Further, experimentation was conducted for selected fuels in a CI engine. The discussions revealed that BTHE increased by 0.54 and 0.03% for CI20 with GNA of 25 and 50ppm. VE was decreased by 0.19, 0.32, 0.59, and 0.70%. EGT was decreased by 7.69, 7.57, 6.71, 6.81, and 7.55% for CI20 with GNA of 25 to 100 ppm. CO emissions were decreased by 12.8, 10.37, 8.71, and 1.65%, HC emissions were lessened by 72.44, 74.48, 75.5, and 76.5%, NOx emissions were reduced by 19.34, 17.56, 19.53, and 16.88%, opacity reduced by 7.1, 5.13, 4.47, and 4.07% for CI20 with GNA of 25 to 100ppm. The maximum cylinder pressure was reduced by 0.76, 1.02, 1.55, and 0.36%, RPR was increased by 36.58%, 33.69%, 38.82%, and 35.33% for CI20 with GNA of 25 to 100ppm. 90% MFB was taken for all blends at the difference of approximately 1°CA from that of diesel. Therefore, CI20 with GNA proportions is a promising substitute for diesel fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The aim of this study was to evaluate biogeographic variability in the fruit, kernel, kernel-oil and press-cake contents of 50 accessions of the beauty leaf tree (C. inophyllum L.) collected from 19 locations spanning 4000 km along the eastern and northern coasts of Australia (Northern Territory and Queensland). Mature fallen fruits of C. inophyllum were collected from individual trees and stored in a shed for over a year. The fruits were cracked open to extract the kernels, and the kernels were crushed to 5–10 mm. NIR spectra of crushed kernels were collected using FT–NIR. Results of this study showed large variation between individual trees and the provenances for oil, resin and cake contents. Most of the C. inophyllum genotypes were separated based on their NIR fingerprint using PCA and PLS-DA. It was concluded that NIR spectroscopy not only aids in the screening of large numbers of genotypes, but it also allows the preservation of the tested seeds for further propagation. This feature will have the greatest advantage in plant breeding and commercial cultivation, as only the seeds that contain high oil content could be sown to help establish plantations with high oil-production capacity. Overall, it was concluded that the differences between provenances for oil, resin and cake contents can be predicted using NIR spectra. Furthermore, NIR spectroscopy can be used as a tool to define provenance variations in the kernel oil content of the beauty leaf tree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

In this study, a variable compression ratio CI engine is tested to predict its performance and emission characteristics by varying input criterions like engine load, CR, and fuel types. The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is considered as the performance characteristic and the emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxide, and smoke opacity are considered as the emission characteristics for this study. The tests are conducted for variation in load from 4 to 12 kg and compression ratio from 14 to 18 in the multi-fuel mode of operation with 0%, 50%, and 100% of Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel blend and producer gas. The use of waste biomass like leaves, small tree branches, vegetable waste, and cow dung in producer gas generation is attempted in this work toward better energy production and management of environmental waste. It has been identified that load mostly influences the brake thermal efficiency, NOx emission, and opacity with a contribution of 58%, 67.5%, and 41.7%, respectively, whereas multi-fuel and compression ratio mostly affect CO emission and HC emission with a contribution of 41.8% and 58.9%, respectively. The maximum BTE and minimum emissions of CO, HC, NOx, and opacity are 15.49%, 0.525 ppm, 54.7 ppm, 125.032 ppm, and 37.99 HSU, respectively, are predicted as the optimum performance of the test engine for composite desirability D of 0.910037. An economic study is conducted to determine the % relative cost variation of the current sample fuel in comparison with diesel fuel. At optimum performance, the predicted fuel MF33.56 costing 10% more than MF0 has been observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Calophyllum inophyllum is used in traditional medicine to treat several diseases and conditions. Several studies have attempted to isolate useful compounds from various parts of this plant. However, the phytochemical constituents of C. inophyllum flower have not been extensively studied. This pioneering study focused on the chemical composition of C. inophyllum flower analyzed by gas chromatography-electron ionization/mass spectrometry (GC-EI/MS) and the antibacterial effects of C. inophyllum flower extracted with organic solvents. Phytochemical compounds were obtained from C. inophyllum flower via maceration with sequential extraction using hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol, respectively. Phytochemical components of total phenolic (TP), total flavonoid (TF), and total saponin (TSC) contents were determined by colorimetric methods and each extract was found to be rich in phenolic, flavonoid, and saponin constituents. The antibacterial activities of the extracts were studied by disk diffusion method. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentrations (MBC) assays were used to address the potentials of extracts. All extracts were active against pathogenic bacteria at different concentrations, and were especially active against Salmonella tyhpi. In addition, the hexane extract exhibited the lowest MIC and MBC of 0.098 and 3.12 mg/mL, respectively, against B. cereus based on the antibacterial dilution method. The correlation analysis indicated a negative relationship between the flavonoid content and the inhibition zone of Salmonella typhi , with a significant value of p < 0.05. On the contrary, a positive relationship between the saponin content and the inhibition zone Klebsiella pneumoniae. These results showed that C. inophyllum flower extracts are rich of bioactive compounds such as phytol, eugenol, caryophyllene oxide, α-copaene, α-muurolene, β-caryophyllene, β-amysin, farnesol, palmitic acid, and cadinene derivatives. [Display omitted] • Chemical compositions of C. inophyllum flower extracts were analyzed by GC–MS. • Solvent polarity influences solubility of bioactive component. • C. inophyllum flower extracts contain large amounts of bioactive compounds. • Ninety-seven compounds were identified from different polarity extracts. • C. inophyllum flower extracts greatly inhibit pathogenic bacteria growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The current research article aims at improving LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) utilization in a compression ignition engine powered with renewable fuel namely Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel (CPBD). The combustion, performance and emission tests were conducted in the stationary single-cylinder water-cooled engine at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The engine was remodeled to function in a dual fuel mode utilizing LPG as primary fuel and CPBD as pilot fuel. Through suction stroke, the primary fuel was supplied whereas the CPBD was injected through direct injection. The results show that the CPBD improved the performance of the engine under the LPG-based dual-fuel engine. There was an increase observed in Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of CPBD upto 4.9% under LPG mode with 12% LPG energy share and a drop in BTE limited with LPG substitution. The water injection method was attempted in this research to increase the substitution of LPG, which resulted positively. The 5% water injection (5%W) increased the LPG substitution from 12% to 16% with a 7% improvement in BTE. There was a drastic improvement noted in hydrocarbon (HC) and Carbon Monoxide (CO) emission in dual fuel mode. The HC emission got decreased by 37.14% in CPBD+LPG mode to 45.7% in CPBD+LPG+5%W mode. Similarly, the CO emission got decreased by 65% with CPBD+LPG mode to 64% with CPBD+LPG+5%W mode. Likewise, the smoke emission also got decreased by 87% in CPBD+LPG mode to 74% in CPBD+LPG+5%W mode. However, NO emission got drastically increased by 90% and 85% in CPBD+LPG and CPBD+LPG+5%W respectively. To conclude, CPBD can be effectively used in CI engines under LPG-based dual fuel mode, which improves the performance and emission concurrently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The preparation and application of bio based plasticizers derived from vegetable oils has gained increasing attention in the polymer industry to date due to the emerging risk shown by the traditional petroleum-based phthalate plasticizer. Epoxy fatty acid ester is among the prospective alternative plasticizers since it is ecofriendly, non-toxic, biodegradable, low migration, and low carbon footprint. Epoxy plasticizer can be synthesized by the epoxidation reaction of fatty acid ester. In this study, the preparation of fatty acid ester as a green precursor of epoxy ester plasticizer was performed via esterification of free fatty acid (FFA) in high acidic Calophyllum inophyllum Seed Oil (CSO) using methanol in the presence of SnCl2.2H2O catalyst. The analysis of the process variables and responses using Box–Behnken Design (BBD) of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was also accomplished. It was found that the quadratic model is the most appropriate model for the optimization process. The BBD analysis demonstrated that the optimum FFA conversion and residual FFA content were 75.03% and 4.59%, respectively, achieved at the following process condition: a reaction temperature of 59.36 °C, a reaction time of 117.80 min, and a catalyst concentration of 5.61%. The fatty acid ester generated was an intermediate product which can undergo a further epoxidation process to produce epoxy plasticizer in polymeric material production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...