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Abstract Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus sensu stricto mosquitoes are major East African malaria vectors. Understanding their dispersal and population structure is critical for developing effective malaria control tools. Three mark-release-recapture (MRR) experiments were conducted for 51 nights to assess daily survival and flight range of An. arabiensis and An. funestus mosquitoes in south-eastern, Tanzania. Mosquitoes were marked with a fluorescent dye as they emerged from breeding sites via a self-marking device. Mosquitoes were collected indoors and outdoors using human landing catches (HLC) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light traps (CDC-LT). In total, 4210 An. arabiensis and An. funestus were collected with 316 (7.5%) marked and recaptured (MR). Daily mean MR was 6.8, standard deviation (SD ± 7.6) for An. arabiensis and 8.9 (SD ± 8.3) for An. funestus. Probability of daily survival was 0.76 for An. arabiensis and 0.86 for An. funestus translating into average life expectancy of 3.6 days for An. arabiensis and 6.5 days for An. funestus. Dispersal distance was 654 m for An. arabiensis and 510 m for An. funestus. An. funestus life expectancy was substantially longer than that of An. arabiensis. The MRR method described here could be routinely utilized when evaluating the impact of new vector control tools on mosquito survival.

Abstract Surveillance of malaria vector species and the monitoring of insecticide resistance are essential to inform malaria control strategies and support the reduction of infections and disease. Genetic barcoding of mosquitoes is a useful tool to assist the high-throughput surveillance of insecticide resistance, discriminate between sibling species and to detect the presence of Plasmodium infections. In this study, we combined multiplex PCR, custom designed dual indexing, and Illumina next generation sequencing for high throughput single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-profiling of four species from the Anopheles (An.) gambiae complex (An. gambiae sensu stricto, An. coluzzii, An. arabiensis and An. melas). By amplifying and sequencing only 14 genetic fragments (500 bp each), we were able to simultaneously detect Plasmodium infection; insecticide resistance-conferring SNPs in ace1, gste2, vgsc and rdl genes; the partial sequences of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and intergenic spacers (IGS), Short INterspersed Elements (SINE), as well as mitochondrial genes (cox1 and nd4) for species identification and genetic diversity. Using this amplicon sequencing approach with the four selected An. gambiae complex species, we identified a total of 15 non-synonymous mutations in the insecticide target genes, including previously described mutations associated with resistance and two new mutations (F1525L in vgsc and D148E in gste2). Overall, we present a reliable and cost-effective high-throughput panel for surveillance of An. gambiae complex mosquitoes in malaria endemic regions.

Abstract Background Spatial repellents that drive mosquitoes away from treated areas, and odour-baited traps, that attract and kill mosquitoes, can be combined and work synergistically in a push-pull system. Push-pull systems have been shown to reduce house entry and outdoor biting rates of malaria vectors and so have the potential to control other outdoor biting mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti that transmit arboviral diseases. In this study, semi-field experiments were conducted to evaluate whether a push-pull system could be used to reduce bites from Aedes mosquitoes. Methods The push and pull under investigation consisted of two freestanding transfluthrin passive emanators (FTPE) and a BG sentinel trap (BGS) respectively. The FTPE contained hessian strips treated with 5.25 g of transfluthrin active ingredient. The efficacies of FTPE and BGS alone and in combination were evaluated by human landing catch in a large semi-field system in Tanzania. We also investigated the protection of FTPE over six months. The data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models with binomial distribution. Results Two FTPE had a protective efficacy (PE) of 61.2% (95% confidence interval (CI): 52.2–69.9%) against the human landing of Ae. aegypti. The BGS did not significantly reduce mosquito landings; the PE was 2.1% (95% CI: −2.9–7.2%). The push-pull provided a PE of 64.5% (95% CI: 59.1–69.9%). However, there was no significant difference in the PE between the push-pull and the two FTPE against Ae. aegypti (P = 0.30). The FTPE offered significant protection against Ae. aegypti at month three, with a PE of 46.4% (95% CI: 41.1–51.8%), but not at six months with a PE of 2.2% (95% CI: −9.0–14.0%). Conclusions The PE of the FTPE and the full push-pull are similar, indicative that bite prevention is primarily due to the activity of the FTPE. While these results are encouraging for the FTPE, further work is needed for a push-pull system to be recommended for Ae. aegypti control. The three-month protection against Ae. aegypti bites suggests that FTPE would be a useful additional control tool during dengue outbreaks, that does not require regular user compliance.

Abstract Background Epidemiological surveys of malaria currently rely on microscopy, polymerase chain reaction assays (PCR) or rapid diagnostic test kits for Plasmodium infections (RDTs). This study investigated whether mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy coupled with supervised machine learning could constitute an alternative method for rapid malaria screening, directly from dried human blood spots. Methods Filter papers containing dried blood spots (DBS) were obtained from a cross-sectional malaria survey in 12 wards in southeastern Tanzania in 2018/19. The DBS were scanned using attenuated total reflection-Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectrometer to obtain high-resolution MIR spectra in the range 4000 cm−1 to 500 cm−1. The spectra were cleaned to compensate for atmospheric water vapour and CO2 interference bands and used to train different classification algorithms to distinguish between malaria-positive and malaria-negative DBS papers based on PCR test results as reference. The analysis considered 296 individuals, including 123 PCR-confirmed malaria positives and 173 negatives. Model training was done using 80% of the dataset, after which the best-fitting model was optimized by bootstrapping of 80/20 train/test-stratified splits. The trained models were evaluated by predicting Plasmodium falciparum positivity in the 20% validation set of DBS. Results Logistic regression was the best-performing model. Considering PCR as reference, the models attained overall accuracies of 92% for predicting P. falciparum infections (specificity = 91.7%; sensitivity = 92.8%) and 85% for predicting mixed infections of P. falciparum and Plasmodium ovale (specificity = 85%, sensitivity = 85%) in the field-collected specimen. Conclusion These results demonstrate that mid-infrared spectroscopy coupled with supervised machine learning (MIR-ML) could be used to screen for malaria parasites in human DBS. The approach could have potential for rapid and high-throughput screening of Plasmodium in both non-clinical settings (e.g., field surveys) and clinical settings (diagnosis to aid case management). However, before the approach can be used, we need additional field validation in other study sites with different parasite populations, and in-depth evaluation of the biological basis of the MIR signals. Improving the classification algorithms, and model training on larger datasets could also improve specificity and sensitivity. The MIR-ML spectroscopy system is physically robust, low-cost, and requires minimum maintenance.

Abstract Background Eave ribbons treated with spatial repellents effectively prevent human exposure to outdoor-biting and indoor-biting malaria mosquitoes, and could constitute a scalable and low-cost supplement to current interventions, such as insecticide-treated nets (ITNs). This study measured protection afforded by transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons to users (personal and communal protection) and non-users (only communal protection), and whether introducing mosquito traps as additional intervention influenced these benefits. Methods Five experimental huts were constructed inside a 110 m long, screened tunnel, in which 1000 Anopheles arabiensis were released nightly. Eave ribbons treated with 0.25 g/m2 transfluthrin were fitted to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 huts, achieving 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% coverage, respectively. Volunteers sat near each hut and collected mosquitoes attempting to bite them from 6 to 10 p.m. (outdoor-biting), then went indoors to sleep under untreated bed nets, beside which CDC-light traps collected mosquitoes from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. (indoor-biting). Caged mosquitoes kept inside the huts were monitored for 24 h-mortality. Separately, eave ribbons, UV–LED mosquito traps (Mosclean) or both the ribbons and traps were fitted, each time leaving the central hut unfitted to represent non-user households and assess communal protection. Biting risk was measured concurrently in all huts, before and after introducing interventions. Results Transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons provided 83% and 62% protection indoors and outdoors respectively to users, plus 57% and 48% protection indoors and outdoors to the non-user. Protection for users remained constant, but protection for non-users increased with eave ribbons coverage, peaking once 80% of huts were fitted. Mortality of mosquitoes caged inside huts with eave ribbons was 100%. The UV–LED traps increased indoor exposure to users and non-users, but marginally reduced outdoor-biting. Combining the traps and eave ribbons did not improve user protection relative to eave ribbons alone. Conclusion Transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons protect both users and non-users against malaria mosquitoes indoors and outdoors. The mosquito-killing property of transfluthrin can magnify the communal benefits by limiting unwanted diversion to non-users, but should be validated in field trials against pyrethroid-resistant vectors. Benefits of the UV–LED traps as an intervention alone or alongside eave ribbons were however undetectable in this study. These findings extend the evidence that transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons could complement ITNs.

Abstract Background In recent years, the scale-up of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) has greatly reduced malaria transmission. However, malaria remains a global public health concern with the majority of the disease burden in sub-Saharan Africa. Insecticide resistance is a growing problem among Anopheles vector populations, with potential implications for the continued effectiveness of available control interventions. Improved understanding of current resistance levels and underlying mechanisms is essential to design appropriate management strategies and to mitigate future selection for resistance. Methods Anopheles gambiae sensu lato mosquitoes were collected from three villages in Faranah Prefecture, Guinea and their levels of susceptibility to seven insecticides were measured using CDC resistance intensity bioassays. Synergist assays with piperonyl butoxide (PBO) were also undertaken to assess the role of elevated mixed-function oxidases in resistance. Five hundred and sixty-three mosquitoes underwent molecular characterization of vector species, presence of target site mutations (L1014F kdr, N1575Y and G119S Ace-1), Plasmodium falciparum infection, and relative expression of three metabolic genes (CYP6M2, CYP6P3 and GSTD3). Results In Faranah, resistance to permethrin and deltamethrin was observed, as well as possible resistance to bendiocarb. All assayed vector populations were fully susceptible to alpha-cypermethrin, pirimiphos-methyl, clothianidin and chlorfenapyr. Plasmodium falciparum infection was detected in 7.3% (37/508) of mosquitoes tested. The L1014F kdr mutation was found in 100% of a sub-sample of 60 mosquitoes, supporting its fixation in the region. The N1575Y mutation was identified in 20% (113/561) of individuals, with ongoing selection evidenced by significant deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. The G119S Ace-1 mutation was detected in 62.1% (18/29) of mosquitoes tested and was highly predictive of bendiocarb bioassay survival. The metabolic resistance genes, CYP6M2, CYP6P3 and GSTD3, were found to be overexpressed in wild resistant and susceptible An. gambiae sensu stricto populations, compared to a susceptible G3 colony. Furthermore, CYP6P3 was significantly overexpressed in bendiocarb survivors, implicating its potential role in carbamate resistance in Faranah. Conclusions Identification of intense resistance to permethrin and deltamethrin in Faranah, is of concern, as the Guinea National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP) relies exclusively on the distribution of pyrethroid-treated LLINs for vector control. Study findings will be used to guide current and future control strategies in the region.

Wolbachia, a widespread bacterium which can influence mosquito-borne pathogen transmission, has recently been detected within Anopheles (An.) species that are malaria vectors in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although studies have reported Wolbachia strains in the An. gambiae complex, apparent low density and prevalence rates require confirmation. In this study, wild Anopheles mosquitoes collected from two regions of Guinea were investigated. In contrast with previous studies, RNA was extracted from adult females (n = 516) to increase the chances for the detection of actively expressed Wolbachia genes, determine Wolbachia prevalence rates and estimate relative strain densities. Molecular confirmation of mosquito species and Wolbachia multilocus sequence typing (MLST) were carried out to analyse phylogenetic relationships of mosquito hosts and newly discovered Wolbachia strains. Strains were detected in An. melas (prevalence rate of 11.6%–16/138) and hybrids between An. melas and An. gambiae sensu stricto (prevalence rate of 40.0%–6/15) from Senguelen in the Maferinyah region. Furthermore, a novel high-density strain, termed wAnsX, was found in an unclassified Anopheles species. The discovery of novel Wolbachia strains (particularly in members, and hybrids, of the An. gambiae complex) provides further candidate strains that could be used for future Wolbachia-based malaria biocontrol strategies.