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The Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) is an open access telescope dedicated to studying the low frequency (80$-$300 MHz) southern sky. Since beginning operations in mid 2013, the MWA has opened a new observational window in the southern hemisphere enabling many science areas. The driving science objectives of the original design were to observe 21\,cm radiation from the Epoch of Reionisation (EoR), explore the radio time domain, perform Galactic and extragalactic surveys, and monitor solar, heliospheric, and ionospheric phenomena. All together 60$+$ programs recorded 20,000 hours producing 146 papers to date. In 2016 the telescope underwent a major upgrade resulting in alternating compact and extended configurations. Other upgrades, including digital back-ends and a rapid-response triggering system, have been developed since the original array was commissioned. In this paper we review the major results from the prior operation of the MWA, and then discuss the new science paths enabled by the improved capabilities. We group these science opportunities by the four original science themes, but also include ideas for directions outside these categories., Comment: 38 pages, 12 figures, accepted for publication in PASA

We present techniques developed to calibrate and correct Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) low frequency (72-300 MHz) radio observations for polarimetry. The extremely wide field-of-view, excellent instantaneous (u, v)-coverage and sensitivity to degree-scale structure that the MWA provides enable instrumental calibration, removal of instrumental artefacts, and correction for ionospheric Faraday rotation through imaging techniques. With the demonstrated polarimetric capabilities of the MWA, we discuss future directions for polarimetric science at low frequencies to answer outstanding questions relating to polarised source counts, source depolarisation, pulsar science, low-mass stars, exoplanets, the nature of the interstellar and intergalactic media, and the solar environment., Comment: 18 pages, 11 figures, accepted for publication in PASA

We present observations of high-amplitude rapid (2 s) variability toward two bright, compact extragalactic radio sources out of several hundred of the brightest radio sources in one of the 30x30 deg MWA Epoch of Reionization fields using the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) at 155 MHz. After rejecting intrinsic, instrumental, and ionospheric origins we consider the most likely explanation for this variability to be interplanetary scintillation (IPS), likely the result of a large coronal mass ejection propagating from the Sun. This is confirmed by roughly contemporaneous observations with the Ooty Radio Telescope. We see evidence for structure on spatial scales ranging from <1000 km to >1e6 km. The serendipitous night-time nature of these detections illustrates the new regime that the MWA has opened for IPS studies with sensitive night-time, wide-field, low-frequency observations. This regime complements traditional dedicated strategies for observing IPS and can be utilized in real-time to facilitate dedicated follow-up observations. At the same time, it allows large-scale surveys for compact (arcsec) structures in low-frequency radio sources despite the 2 arcmin resolution of the array., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures. ApJ Letters, in press

The Sun has remained a difficult source to image for radio telescopes, especially at the low radio frequencies. Its morphologically complex emission features span a large range of angular scales, emission mechanisms involved and brightness temperatures. In addition, time and frequency synthesis, the key tool used by most radio interferometers to build up information about the source being imaged is not effective for solar imaging, because many of the features of interest are short lived and change dramatically over small fractional bandwidths. Building on the advances in radio frequency technology, digital signal processing and computing, the kind of instruments needed to simultaneously capture the evolution of solar emission in time, frequency, morphology and polarization over a large spectral span with the requisite imaging fidelity, and time and frequency resolution have only recently begun to appear. Of this class of instruments, the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) is best suited for solar observations. The MWA has now entered a routine observing phase and here we present some early examples from MWA observations., Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures, submitted for the 31st URSI General Assembly and Scientific Symposium, to be held in Bejing, China from 16-23, August, 2014

An intense type IV radio burst was observed by the STEREO Behind (STB) spacecraft located about 144 deg. behind Earth. The burst was associated with a large solar eruption that occurred on the backside of the Sun (N05E151) close to the disk center in the STB view. The eruption was also observed by the STEREO Ahead (STA) spacecraft (located at 149 deg. ahead of Earth) as an eruption close to the west limb (N05W60) in that view. The type IV burst was complete in STB observations in that the envelope reached the lowest frequency and then receded to higher frequencies. The burst was partial viewed from STA, revealing only the edge coming down to the lowest frequency. The type IV burst was not observed at all near Earth because the source was 61 deg. behind the east limb. The eruption was associated with a low-frequency type II burst observed in all three views, although it was not very intense. Solar energetic particles were also observed at both STEREOs and at SOHO, suggesting that the shock was much extended, consistent with the very high speed of the CME (~2048 km/s). These observations suggest that the type IV emission is directed along a narrow cone above the flare site. We confirm this result statistically using the type IV bursts of solar cycle 23.

The main features of some current theories of type III and type II bursts are outlined. Among the most common solar radio bursts, type III bursts are produced at frequencies of 10 kHz to a few GHz when electron beams are ejected from solar active regions, entering the corona and solar wind at typical speeds of 0.1c. These beams provide energy to generate Langmuir waves via a streaming instability. In the current stochastic-growth theory, Langmuir waves grow in clumps associated with random low-frequency density fluctuations, leading to the observed spiky waves. Nonlinear wave-wave interactions then lead to secondary emission of observable radio waves near the fundamental and harmonic of the plasma frequency. Subsequent scattering processes modify the dynamic radio spectra, while back-reaction of Langmuir waves on the beam causes it to fluctuate about a state of marginal stability. Theories based on these ideas can account for the observed properties of type III bursts, including the in situ waves and the dynamic spectra of the radiation. Type 11 bursts are associated with shock waves propagating through the corona and interplanetary space and radiating from roughly 30 kHz to 1 GHz. Their basic emission mechanisms are believed to be similar to those of type III events and radiation from Earth's foreshock. However, several sub-classes of type II bursts may exist with different source regions and detailed characteristics. Theoretical models for type II bursts are briefly reviewed, focusing on a model with emission from a foreshock region upstream of the shock for which observational evidence has just been reported.

During the Voyager 2 flyby of Uranus, strong electron plasma oscillations (Langmuir waves) were detected by the plasma wave instrument in the 1.78-kHz channel on January 23-24, 1986, prior to the inbound bow shock crossing. Langmuir waves are excited by energetic electrons streaming away from the bow shock. The goal of this work is to estimate the location and motion of Uranus' bow shock using Langmuir wave data, together with the spacecraft positions and the measured interplanetary magnetic field. The following three remote sensing analyses were performed: the basic remote sensing method, the lag time method, and the trace-back method. Because the interplanetary magnetic field was highly variable, the first analysis encountered difficulties in obtaining a realistic estimation of Uranus' bow shock motion. In the lag time method developed here, time lags due to the solar wind's finite convection speed are taken into account when calculating the shock's standoff distance. In the new trace-back method, limits on the standoff distance are obtained as a function of time by reconstructing electron paths. Most of the results produced by the latter two analyses are consistent with predictions based on the standard theoretical model and the measured solar wind plasma parameters. Differences between our calculations and the theoretical model are discussed.

A brief overview of the physics thought to determine the properties of the heliospheric termination shock is given and the central role of hot interstellar pick-up ions and cosmic rays is emphasized.

With the Voyager spacecrafts' discovery of low-frequency radio emissions from the depths of the outer heliosphere has come the realization that the boundaries between our heliosphere and the local interstellar medium have been detected. A model is presented here that can account for the observed radio emissions, based upon a termination shock modified by the dynamical effect of galactic and anomalous cosmic rays. Frequency and time domain properties of both continuum and transient radio events are explained, and new estimates for the distance to the termination shock (approximately 60-70 astronomical units) and the heliopause (less than or approximately 90 AU) are given.

Existing calculations of nonlinear coupling coefficients for fundamental and harmonic emission via three-wave interactions are refined and used to calculate the conversion efficiency of Langmuir energy into electromagnetic waves when the Langmuir waves have the observed bursty form. Resulting field strengths for harmonic emission are found to be consistent with typical International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISSE 3) observations at 1 AU. Fundamental emission at 1 AU is found to proceed only when stimulated by the presence of a source of ion sound waves. However, it is argued that electrostatic decay of Langmuir waves can supply the necessary waves provided the driving electron beam is sufficiently fast. Under these conditions, the predicted fundamental field strengths can account for both the highest and typical fields observed; they also dominate the predicted harmonic fields, consistent with observations. This mechanism is also consistent with previous observations that fundamental emission generally occurs early in type III events, when the beam is fastest. For typical parameters it is shown that neither fundamental nor harmonic emission saturates its respective source instability, contrary to previous assumptions. However, saturation cannot be ruled out under particularly favorable conditions.

The central ideas of this grant are that the magnetospheric boundary layers link disparate regions of the magnetosphere together, and the global behavior of the magnetosphere can be understood only by understanding the linking mechanisms. Accordingly the present grant includes simultaneous research on the global, meso-, and micro-scale physics of the magnetosphere and its boundary layers. These boundary layers include the bow shock, magnetosheath, the plasma sheet boundary layer, and the ionosphere. Analytic, numerical and simulation projects have been performed on these subjects, as well as comparison of theoretical results with observational data. Very good progress has been made, with four papers published or in press and two additional papers submitted for publication during the six month period 1 June - 30 November 1993. At least two projects are currently being written up. In addition, members of the group have given papers at scientific meetings. The further structure of this report is as follows: section two contains brief accounts of research completed during the last six months, while section three describes the research projects intended for the grant's final period.

The evolution of Langmuir and ion-sound waves in type 3 sources is investigated, incorporating linear growth, linear damping, and nonlinear electrostatic decay. Improved estimates are obtained for the wavenumber range of growing waves and the nonlinear coupling coefficient for the decay process. The resulting prediction for the electrostatic decay threshold is consistent with the observed high-field cutoff in the Langmuir field distribution. It is shown that the conditions in the solar wind do not allow a steady state to be attained; rather, bursty linear and nonlinear interactions take place, consistent with the highly inhomogeneous and impulsive waves actually observed. Nonlinear growth is found to be fast enough to saturate the growth of the parent Langmuir waves in the available interaction time. The resulting levels of product Langmuir and ion-sound waves are estimated theoretically and shown to be consistent with in situ ISEE 3 observations of type 3 events at 1 AU. Nonlinear interactions slave the growth and decay of product sound waves to that of the product Langmuir waves. The resulting probability distribution of ion-sound field strengths is predicted to have a flat tail extending to a high-field cutoff. This prediction is consistent with statistics derived here from ISEE 3 observations. Agreement is also found between the frequencies of the observed waves and predictions for the product S waves. The competing processes of nonlinear wave collapse and quasilinear relaxation are discussed, and it is concluded that neither is responsible for the saturation of Langmuir growth. When wave and beam inhomogeneities are accounted for, arguments from quasi-linear relaxation yield an upper bound on the Langmuir fields that is too high to be relevant. Nor are the criteria for direct wave collapse of the beam-driven waves met, consistent with earlier simulation results that imply that this process is not responsible for saturation of the beam instability. Indeed, even if the highest observed Langmuir fields are assumed to he part of a long-wavelength 'condensate' produced via electrostatic decay, they still fall short of the relevant requirements for wave collapse. The most stringent requirement for collapse is that collapsing wave packets not be disrupted by ambient density fluctuations in the solar wind. Fields of several mV m(exp -1) extending over several hundred km would be needed to satisfy this requirement; at 1 AU such fields are rare at best.

Detailed comparisons are made between the Langmuir-wave properties predicted by the recently developed stochastic-growth theory of type III sources and those observed by the plasma wave experiment on ISEE 3, after correcting for the main instrumental and selection effects. Analysis of the observed field-strength distribution confirms the theoretically predicted form and implies that wave growth fluctuates both spatially and temporally in sign and magnitude, leading to an extremely clumpy distribution of fields. A cutoff in the field-strength distribution is seen at a few mV/m, corresponding to saturation via nonlinear effects. Analysis of the size distribution of Langmuir clumps yields results in accord with those obtained in earlier work and with the size distribution of ambient density fluctuations in the solar wind. This confirms that the inhomogeneities in the Langmuir growth rate are determined by the density fluctuations and that these fluctuations persist during type III events.

Phenomena detected by the plasma wave instrument during the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune are reviewed. Particular attention given to radio emissions, electron plasma oscillations in the solar wind upstream of the bow shock, electrostatic electron cyclotron waves and upper hybrid resonance (UHR) waves, whistler mode noise, and dust impacts. The radio emissions which occur in a broad range of about 5 to 50 kHz are considered to be generated by mode conversion from UHR waves at the magnetic equator. The inner magnetosphere has relatively low plasma wave intensities (less than 100 microV/m). Many small micron-sized dust particles which were detected striking the spacecraft had the maximum impact rate of about 280 impacts per sec at the bound ring plane crossing, and about 110 impacts per sec at the outbound ring plane crossing. Most of the particles were concentrated in a dense disk, about one thousand km thick, near the equatorial plane.

A recent stochastic-growth theory of clumpy Langmuir waves in type III sources is shown to imply that the clumps will have the same size distribution as the ambient low-frequency density fluctuations in the solar wind. Spectral analysis of Langmuir-wave time series from the ISEE 3 plasma wave instrument confirms this prediction to within the uncertainties in the spectra. The smallest Langmuir clump size is inferred to be in the range 0.4-30 km in general, and 2-30 km for beam-resonant waves, and it is concluded that the diffusion of waves in the source is anomalous.

Electrostatic waves driven by an electron beam in an ambient magnetized plasma were studied using a quasi-1D PIC simulation of electron plasma waves (i.e., Langmuir waves). The results disclose the presence of a process for moving wave energy from frequencies and wavenumbers predicted by linear theory to the Langmuir-like frequencies during saturation of the instability. A decay process for producing backward propagating Langmuir-like waves, along with low-frequency waves, is observed. The simulation results, however, indicate that the backscattering process is not the conventional Langmuir wave decay. Electrostatic waves near multiples of the electron plasma frequency are generated by wave-wave coupling during the nonlinear stage of the simulations, confirming the suggestion of Klimas (1983).

Progress is reported toward a model for the 2 and 3 kHz radio waves observed by Voyagers 1 and 2 during the 1983-1987 interval at radial distances from the sun of 17 and 13 AU, respectively. The brightness temperature and range of the volume emissivity for the radiation are calculated, and the results are compared with the characteristics of known radiation at multiples of the plasma frequency. The derived brightness temperatures are used to constrain the source of the Langmuir waves required to generate the observed emission and to rule out certain emission mechanisms. Minimum values of 3-30 micro-V/m are derived for the Langmuir wave electric field intensity and are found to be in reasonable agreement with observed values at planetary bow shocks. Path lengths required for the radiation to reach the observed levels are derived and discussed. The relevance of these ideas to possible direct observations of heliospheric boundaries is addressed.

There is mounting evidence that the Voyager 1 and 2 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft may approach the inner (termination) heliospheric shock near the end of this century. It is argued here, by analogy with planetary bow shocks, that energetic electrons backstreaming from the heliospheric shock along the magnetic field should be unstable to the generation of Langmuir waves by the electron beam instability. Analytic expressions for the cutoff velocity, corresponding to the beam speed of the electrons backstreaming from the shock, are derived for a standard solar wind model. At the front side of the heliosphere the maximum beam velocity is expected to be at the meridian passing through the nose of the shock, which is assumed to be aligned with the Very Local Inter-Stellar Medium flow. This foreshock region and the associated Langmuir waves are relevant to both the expected in situ observations of the heliospheric boundaries, and to the low-frequency (2-3 kHz) radio emissions observed by the Voyager spacecraft in the outer heliosphere. Provided that these radio emissions are generated by Langmuir waves, the minimum Langmuir wave electric fields at the remote source are estimated to be greater than about 3 - 30 microV/m.

During the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune, a series of 16 whistler-like events were detected by the plasma wave instrument near closest approach. These events were observed at radial distances from 1.30 to 1.99 R sub N and magnetic latitudes from -7 to 33 deg. The frequencies ranged from 6.1 to 12.0 kHz, and the dispersions fit the Eckersley law for lightning-generated whistlers. Lightning in the atmosphere of Neptune is the only known source of such signals. The frequency range of the whistlers (up to 12 kHz) indicates that the local electron densities are substantially higher (N sub e greater than 30 to 100 per cu cm) than indicated by the in situ plasma measurements. The dispersion of the whistlers is very large, typically 26,000 sec Hz(exp 0.5). Based on existing plasma density models and measurements, the dispersions are too large to be accounted for by a single direct path from the lightning source to the spacecraft. Therefore, multiple bounces from one hemisphere to the other are required. The most likely propagation path probably involves a lightning source on the dayside of the planet, with repeated bounces through the dense dayside ionosphere at low L-values.

Voyager 2 observations of electrostatic electron and ion cyclotron waves detected in Neptune's magnetosphere are presented. Both types of emission appear in a frequency band above the electron and ion (proton) cyclotron frequencies, respectively, and are tightly confined to the magnetic equator occurring within a few degrees of it. The electron cyclotron modes including an intense upper hybrid resonance emission excited by an unstable loss cone distribution of low-density superthermal electrons. The ion cyclotron waves are interpreted as hydrogen Bernstein modes including an intense lower hybrid resonance emission excited by an unstable ring distribution of low-density pickup N(+) ions deriving from the satellite Triton.

The Voyager 2 plasma wave receiver detected weak radio emissions from Neptune's magnetosphere in the frequency range of 3 - 60 kHz. The emissions occurred in bursts lasting for typically 1.5 hours, often occurring twice per planetary rotation. Most of these radio bursts were detected within several degrees of the magnetic equatorial plane. During the passage through the magnetosphere, electrostatic upper hybrid resonance bands were observed close to the magnetic equator in conjunction with intensifications of the radio emissions at frequencies close to and above the upper hybrid bands. Further, near closest approach, the radio emissions were observed to cross the right-hand cutoff frequency with no apparent attenuation. It is concluded that the Neptunian radio emissions below about 60 kHz are produced by mode conversion from the upper hybrid waves and propagate in the ordinary mode into beams within about 12 deg of the magnetic equator. There is also evidence of an extraordinary mode emission at about 60 kHz which is apparently generated by an entirely different source from the escaping continuum radiation.

Water molecules outgassed from the Space Shuttle suffer collisional charge-exchange with ionospheric oxygen ions, thereby forming unstable distributions of pick-up water ions and leading to high levels of plasma waves near the Shuttle. Liouville's equation with a charge-exchange source term is solved for the water ion distribution function as a function of position relative to the Shuttle. The observational characteristics of the near zone Shuttle waves are summarized. A linear theory in which beam like distributions of water ions drive Doppler shifted lower hybrid waves via the modified two stream instability is developed. This theory explains many characteristics of the near zone waves. Further work on the effects of wave nonlinearities and spatial inhomogeneity is required to explain the detailed frequency spectrum of the waves. The observed wave levels apparently satisfy the threshold condition for modulational instability of lower hybrid waves.