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Background: Image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT) has changed clinical practice. We proposed a survey to radiotherapy centers in Lombardy to picture the current clinical practice of its use., Research Design and Methods: The survey consisted of 32 multiple-choice questions, divided into five topics: type of hospital, patients treated in 2019, number of LINACs; presence of protocols and staff involved in IGRT; IGRT in stereotaxis; IGRT in non-stereotactic treatments; availability of medical and technical staff., Results: Twenty-seven directors answered (77%). Most centers (74%) have produced protocols to ensure uniformity in the IGRT process. The most widely used IGRT modality (92%) is cone-beam CT. Daily IGRT control is favored for prostate (100%), head and neck (87%), and lung (78%) neoplasms. The resident doctors can always perform supervised IGRT matching in only six centers. Radiation therapists perform IGRT controls only for some sites in 12 cases (44%) and always in 9 cases (33%). Radiation oncologists are present in real time, in most cases., Conclusions: Today, IGRT can be considered standard practice but at the price of more time-consuming procedures. A balance between a fully physician-controlled process and an increased role for specifically trained RTTs is actively being sought.

Aims and Background: Bladder preservation is a treatment option in muscle-invasive bladder carcinoma. The most investigated approach is a trimodality schedule including maximum transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) followed by chemoradiotherapy. Our aim was to evaluate the use of bladder preservation by radiation oncologists of the Lombardy region in Italy., Methods and Study Design: A survey with 13 items regarding data of 2012 was sent to all 32 radiotherapy centers within the collaboration between the Lombardy Oncological Network and the Lombardy Section of the Italian Society of Oncological Radiotherapy., Results: Thirteen centers (41%) answered the survey; the presented data come from 11 active centers. In these centers, 11,748 patients were treated with external-beam radiotherapy in 2012, 100 of whom having bladder cancer (0.9%). 74/100 patients received radiotherapy as palliative treatment for T, N or M lesions. A further 9 and 5 patients received radiotherapy for oligometastatic disease (ablative doses to small volumes) and postoperatively, respectively. Bladder preservation was performed in 12 cases and included trimodality and other strategies (mainly TURBT followed by radiotherapy). A multidisciplinary urology tumor board met regularly in 5 of 11 centers. All responders declared their interest in the Lombardy multicenter collaboration on bladder preservation., Conclusions: Our survey showed that bladder preservation is rarely used in Lombardy despite the availability of the latest radiotherapy technologies and the presence of an urology tumor board in half of the centers. The initiative of multicenter and multidisciplinary collaboration was undertaken to prepare the platform for bladder preservation as a treatment option in selected patients.

Purpose: To prospectively evaluate long-term late rectal bleeding (lrb) and faecal incontinence (linc) after high-dose radiotherapy (RT) for prostate cancer in the AIROPROS 0102 population, and to assess clinical/dosimetric risk factors., Materials and Methods: Questionnaires of 515 patients with G0 baseline incontinence and bleeding scores (follow-up ≥6 years) were analysed. Correlations between lrb/linc and many clinical and dosimetric parameters were investigated by univariate and multivariate logistic analyses. The correlation between lrb/linc and symptoms during the first 3 years after RT was also investigated., Results: Of 515 patients lrb G1, G2 and G3 was found in 32 (6.1%), 2 (0.4%) and 3 (0.6%) patients while linc G1, G2 and G3 was detected in 50 (9.7%), 3 (0.6%) and 3 (0.6%), respectively. The prevalence of G2-G3 lrb events was significantly reduced compared to the first 3-years (1% vs 2.7%, p=0.016) ≥G1 lrb was significantly associated with V75 Gy (OR=1.07). In multivariate analysis, ≥G1 linc was associated with V40 Gy (OR=1.015), use of antihypertensive medication (OR=0.38), abdominal surgery before RT (OR=4.7), haemorrhoids (OR=2.6), and G2-G3 acute faecal incontinence (OR=4.4), a nomogram to predict the risk of long-term ≥G1 linc was proposed. Importantly, the prevalence of ≥G1 linc was significantly correlated with the mean incontinence score during the first 3 years after RT (OR=16.3)., Conclusions: Long-term (median: 7 years) rectal symptoms are prevalently mild and strongly correlated with moderate/severe events occurring in the first 3 years after RT. Linc was associated with several risk factors., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aims and Background: In 2002, a survey including 1759 patients treated from 1980 to 1998 established a "benchmark" Italian data source for prostate cancer radiotherapy. This report updates the previous one., Methods: Data on clinical management and outcomes of 3001 patients treated in 15 centers from 1999 through 2003 were analyzed and compared with those of the previous survey., Results: Significant differences in clinical management (-10% had abdominal magnetic resonance imaging; +26% received ≥70 Gy, +48% conformal radiotherapy, -20% pelvic radiotherapy) and in G3-4 toxicity rates (-3.8%) were recorded. Actuarial 5-year overall, disease-specific, clinical relapse-free, and biochemical relapse-free survival rates were 88%, 96%, 96% and 88%, respectively. At multivariate analysis, D'Amico risk categories significantly impacted on all the outcomes; higher radiotherapy doses were significantly related with better overall survival rates, and a similar trend was evident for disease-specific and biochemical relapse-free survival; cumulative probability of 5-year late G1-4 toxicity was 24.8% and was significantly related to higher radiotherapy doses (P <0.001)., Conclusions: The changing patterns of practice described seem related to an improvement in efficacy and safety of radiotherapy for prostate cancer. However, the impact of the new radiotherapy techniques should be prospectively evaluated.

Purpose: To model late fecal incontinence after high-dose prostate cancer radiotherapy (RT) in patients accrued in the AIROPROS (prostate working group of the Italian Association of Radiation Oncology) 0102 trial using different endpoint definitions., Methods and Materials: The self-reported questionnaires (before RT, 1 month after RT, and every 6 months for ≤3 years after RT) of 586 patients were available. The peak incontinence (P&#95;INC) and two longitudinal definitions (chronic incontinence [C&#95;INC], defined as the persistence of Grade 1 or greater incontinence after any Grade 2-3 event; and mean incontinence score [M&#95;INC], defined as the average score during the 3-year period after RT) were considered. The correlation between the clinical/dosimetric parameters (including rectal dose-volume histograms) and P&#95;INC (Grade 2 or greater), C&#95;INC, and M&#95;INC of ≥1 were investigated using multivariate logistic analyses. Receiver operating characteristic curves and the area under the curve were used to assess the predictive value of the different multivariate models., Results: Of the 586 patients, 36 with a Grade 1 or greater incontinence score before RT were not included in the present analysis. Of the 550 included patients, 197 (35.8%) had at least one control with a Grade 1 or greater incontinence score (M&#95;INC >0). Of these 197 patients, 37 (6.7%), 22 (4.0%), and 17 (3.1%) were scored as having P&#95;INC, M&#95;INC ≥1, and C&#95;INC, respectively. On multivariate analysis, Grade 2 or greater acute incontinence was the only predictor of P&#95;INC (odds ratio [OR], 5.9; p = .0009). Grade 3 acute incontinence was predictive of C&#95;INC (OR, 9.4; p = .02), and percentage of the rectal volume receiving >40 Gy of ≥80% was predictive of a M&#95;INC of ≥1 (OR, 3.8; p = .008) and of C&#95;INC (OR, 3.6; p = .03). Previous bowel disease, previous abdominal/pelvic surgery, and the use of antihypertensive (protective factor) correlated highly with both C&#95;INC and M&#95;INC ≥1. The predictive values of the models for C&#95;INC (area under the curve, 0.83) and M&#95;INC ≥1 (area under the curve, 0.73) were greater than the ones for P&#95;INC (area under the curve, 0.62) and more reliable (p = .0001-.0003 against p = .02). Nomograms for the two longitudinal definitions were derived., Conclusions: The longitudinal definitions of fecal incontinence (C&#95;INC and M&#95;INC ≥1) were helpful in accounting for both the persistence and the severity of the incontinence. A significant fraction of peak events was consequential to acute incontinence, and a longer duration of symptoms mainly depended on the rectal dose bath (percentage of rectal volume receiving >40 Gy), and pretreatment clinical factors., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To evaluate and discuss the role of specific types of abdominal surgery (SURG) before radical radiation therapy as a risk factor for late rectal toxicity in prostate cancer patients., Methods: Results concerning questionnaire-based scored late bleeding and faecal incontinence in 718 patients with a complete follow-up of 36 months were analysed, focusing on the impact of specific pre-radiotherapy abdominal/pelvic surgery procedures. Patients were accrued in the prospective study AIROPROS 0102. Different types of surgery (rectum-sigma resection, kidney resection, cholecystectomy or appendectomy) were considered as covariates together with a number of different parameters previously found to be predictive of late toxicity and including clinical as well as dosimetric parameters. Univariate (UVA) and multivariate (MVA) logistic analyses were carried out., Results: In total 69/718 patients were previously submitted to one or more surgical procedures, mostly cholecystectomy (n=21) and appendectomy (n=27). Actuarial incidences of G2-G3 and G3 bleeding were 52 (7.2%) and 24 (3.3%) respectively; 19 (2.6%) chronic incontinence events were registered. Cholecystectomy was found to be highly correlated with late rectal bleeding at UVA: OR=4.3 and p=0.006 for G2-G3 and OR=5.4 and p=0.01 for G3. Considering MVA (including dosimetric and clinical factors), G2-G3 bleeding was significantly correlated to cholecystectomy (OR=6.5, p=0.002), V75 Gy (OR=1.074, p=0.003) and secondarily with appendectomy (OR=2.7, p=0.10), presence of acute radioinduced rectal bleeding (OR=1.70, p=0.21) and androgen deprivation (OR=0.67, p=0.25). Appendectomy (OR=5.9, p=0.004) and cholecystectomy (OR=5.5, p=0.016) were very strong predictors of G3 bleeding with V75 Gy playing a less significant role (OR=1.037, p=0.26). Conversely, no specific surgery was correlated with actuarial or chronic incontinence., Conclusions: This analysis highlights previous SURG as the best predictor of late rectal bleeding. Among the different types of abdominal surgery, cholecystectomy and appendectomy play the major role, especially for severe late bleeding., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Development of user-friendly tools for the prediction of single-patient probability of late rectal toxicity after conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer., Methods and Materials: This multicenter protocol was characterized by the prospective evaluation of rectal toxicity through self-assessed questionnaires (minimum follow-up, 36 months) by 718 adult men in the AIROPROS 0102 trial. Doses were between 70 and 80 Gy. Nomograms were created based on multivariable logistic regression analysis. Three endpoints were considered: G2 to G3 late rectal bleeding (52/718 events), G3 late rectal bleeding (24/718 events), and G2 to G3 late fecal incontinence (LINC, 19/718 events)., Results: Inputs for the nomogram for G2 to G3 late rectal bleeding estimation were as follows: presence of abdominal surgery before RT, percentage volume of rectum receiving >75 Gy (V75Gy), and nomogram-based estimation of the probability of G2 to G3 acute gastrointestinal toxicity (continuous variable, which was estimated using a previously published nomogram). G3 late rectal bleeding estimation was based on abdominal surgery before RT, V75Gy, and NOMACU. Prediction of G2 to G3 late fecal incontinence was based on abdominal surgery before RT, presence of hemorrhoids, use of antihypertensive medications (protective factor), and percentage volume of rectum receiving >40 Gy., Conclusions: We developed and internally validated the first set of nomograms available in the literature for the prediction of radio-induced toxicity in prostate cancer patients. Calculations included dosimetric as well as clinical variables to help radiation oncologists predict late rectal morbidity, thus introducing the possibility of RT plan corrections to better tailor treatment to the patient's characteristics, to avoid unnecessary worsening of quality of life, and to provide support to the patient in selecting the best therapeutic approach., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background and Purpose: To fit an NTCP model including clinical risk factors to late rectal toxicities after radiotherapy for prostate cancer., Methods and Materials: Data of 669 patients were considered. The probability of late toxicity within 36months (bleeding and incontinence) was fitted with the original and a modified Logit-EUD model, including clinical factors by fitting a subset specific TD(50)s: the ratio of TD(50)s with and without including the clinical variable was the dose-modifying factor (D(mod))., Results: Abdominal surgery (surg) was a risk factor for G2-G3 bleeding, reflecting in a TD(50)=82.7Gy and 88.4Gy for patients with and without surg (D(mod)=0.94; 0.90 for G3 bleeding); acute toxicity was also an important risk factor for G2-G3 bleeding (D(mod)=0.93). Concerning incontinence, surg and previous diseases of the colon were the clinical co-factors. D(mod)(surg) and D(mod)(colon) were 0.50 and 0.42, respectively for chronic incontinence and 0.73 and 0.64, respectively for mean incontinence score ⩾1. Best-fit n values were 0.03-0.05 and 1 for bleeding and incontinence, respectively. The inclusion of clinical factors always improved the predictive value of the models., Conclusions: The inclusion of predisposing clinical factors improves NTCP estimation; the assessment of other clinical and genetic factors will be useful to reduce parameter uncertainties., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Assessing the predictors of late rectal toxicity after high-dose conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer., Methods: One thousand one hundred thirty-two patients entered a prospective observational multicentric study; late rectal toxicity was evaluated by a self-reported questionnaire. Results concerning bleeding and faecal incontinence of 718/1132 patients with a complete follow-up at 36 months were analysed. The correlation between a number of clinical-dosimetric parameters and moderate/severe toxicity was investigated by univariate and multivariate logistic analyses., Results: Fifty-two (7.2%) and 57/718 (7.9%) patients were scored as moderate/severe bleeders and faecal incontinents, respectively; 19/57 incontinent patients showed persistent incontinence at 36 months. Bleeding was mainly correlated with V75 Gy while severe bleeding was mainly correlated with the previous abdominal/pelvic surgery; a different rectal dose-volume relationship in the two groups of patients (with/without surgery) was found. Moderate/severe acute toxicity was weakly correlated to late bleeding. The best predictor of faecal incontinence was acute toxicity (OR=4 and 7 for chronic and actuarial incontinence, respectively)., Conclusion: The application of rectal dose-volume constraints limited the incidence of rectal bleeding. The risk of bleeding may be further reduced by limiting V75 Gy<5% and, in the case of patients previously submitted to abdominal/pelvic surgery, V70 Gy<15-20%. Faecal incontinence seems to be mainly a consequential effect after acute toxicity.

Purpose: To predict acute Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG)/European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) and Subjective Objective Signs Management and Analysis/Late Effect of Normal Tissue (SOMA/LENT) toxicities of the lower gastrointestinal (LGI) syndrome in patients with prostate cancer undergoing three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy using a tool (nomogram) that takes into account clinical and dosimetric variables that proved to be significant in the Italian Association for Radiation Oncology (AIRO) Group on Prostate Cancer (AIROPROS) 0102 trial., Methods and Materials: Acute rectal toxicity was scored in 1,132 patients by using both the RTOG/EORTC scoring system and a 10-item self-assessed questionnaire. Correlation between clinical variables/dose-volume histogram constraints and rectal toxicity was investigated by means of multivariate logistic analyses. Multivariate logistic analyses results were used to create nomograms predicting the symptoms of acute LGI syndrome., Results: Mean rectal dose was a strong predictor of Grade 2-3 RTOG/EORTC acute LGI toxicity (p = 0.0004; odds ratio (OR) = 1.035), together with hemorrhoids (p = 0.02; OR = 1.51), use of anticoagulants/antiaggregants (p = 0.02; OR = 0.63), and androgen deprivation (AD) (p = 0.04; OR = 0.65). Diabetes (p = 0.34; OR = 1.28) and pelvic node irradiation (p = 0.11; OR = 1.56) were significant variables to adjust toxicity prediction. Bleeding was related to hemorrhoids (p = 0.02; OR = 173), AD (p = 0.17; OR = 0.67), and mean rectal dose (p = 0.009; OR = 1.024). Stool frequency was related to seminal vesicle irradiation (p = 0.07; OR = 6.46), AD administered for more than 3 months (p = 0.002; OR = 0.32), and the percent volume of rectum receiving more than 60 Gy (V60Gy) V60 (p = 0.02; OR = 1.02). Severe fecal incontinence depended on seminal vesicle irradiation (p = 0.14; OR = 4.5) and V70 (p = 0.033; OR = 1.029)., Conclusions: To the best of our knowledge, this work presents the first set of nomograms available in the literature specific to symptoms of LGI syndrome and provides clinicians with a tailored probability of the specific outcome. Validation of the tool is in progress.

Purpose: To find predictors for rectal and intestinal acute toxicity in patients with prostate cancer treated with > or =70 Gy conformal radiotherapy., Methods and Materials: Between July 2002 and March 2004, 1,132 patients were entered into a cooperative study (AIROPROS01-02). Toxicity was scored using the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group/European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer scale and by considering the changes (before and after treatment) of the scores of a self-administered questionnaire on rectal/intestinal toxicity. The correlation with a number of parameters was assessed by univariate and multivariate analyses. Concerning the questionnaire, only moderate/severe complications were considered., Results: Of 1,132 patients, 1,123 were evaluable. Of these patients, 375, 265, and 28 had Grade 1, 2, and 3 Radiation Therapy Oncology Group/European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer toxicity, respectively. The mean rectal dose was the most predictive parameter (p = 0.0004; odds ratio, 1.035) for Grade 2 or worse toxicity, and the use of anticoagulants/antiaggregants (p = 0.02; odds ratio, 0.63) and hormonal therapy (p = 0.04, odds ratio, 0.65) were protective. The questionnaire-based scoring revealed that a greater mean rectal dose was associated with a greater risk of bleeding; larger irradiated volumes were associated with frequency, tenesmus, incontinence, and bleeding; hormonal therapy was protective against frequency and tenesmus; hemorrhoids were associated with a greater risk of tenesmus and bleeding; and diabetes associated highly with diarrhea., Conclusion: The mean rectal dose correlated with acute rectal/intestinal toxicity in three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer, and hormonal therapy and the use of anticoagulants/antiaggregants were protective. According to the moderate/severe injury scores on the self-assessed questionnaire, several clinical and dose-volume parameters were independently predictive for particular symptoms.

Aims and Background: The National Working Group on Prostate Radiotherapy of AIRO (Associazione Italiana Radioterapia Oncologica, Italian Association of Radiotherapeutic Oncology) was established in March 2001. A retrospective multi-center survey was performed to analyze the patterns of care for prostate cancer patients treated with postoperative radiotherapy following radical prostatectomy in Italy with regard to the year 2000., Materials and Methods: A structured questionnaire was mailed to 47 Italian radiotherapy centers to assess patient accrual in the postoperative setting in the interval comprised between period January-December 2000. Numbers of patients treated for different stages, specific prognostic factors indicating the need for adjuvant radiotherapy, fractionation schedules and prescription doses were acquired as well as other clinically important factors such as radiotherapy timing and the use of hormone therapy. More technical features of the treatment, such as patient positioning, mode of simulation, typical field setup and dose prescription criteria were also included in the questionnaire., Results: The questionnaire was returned by 24 radiotherapy Institutions (51%) with a total number of 470 patients treated postoperatively in the year 2000. An average of about 20 patients were enrolled by each radiotherapy center. The age range was 45-81 years. Radiotherapy was delivered within 6 months of radical prostatectomy in 297 patients (65.4%) (mean, 3.4 months). In 157 (34.6%), the treatment was delivered as a salvage approach for biochemical or micro-macroscopic recurrence. Most of patients had locally advanced stage disease (pT3-pT4) (76%). Unfavorable prognostic factors, such as positive margins, capsular invasion, Gleason pattern score > 7 were present in about 50% of patients., Conclusions: The study confirmed that important risk factors for recurrences are present in a significant percentage of patients treated by radical prostatectomy. The number of patients that would benefit from adjuvant radiotherapy is therefore potentially very large. Future prospective studies should be conducted to assess and to clarify the respective roles of adjuvant and salvage radiotherapy in prostate cancer patients.

Aims and Background: Rectal cancer can be considered a broad-spectrum disease, where the surgeon, radiation oncologist and medical oncologist have a peculiar and specific place in order to work harmoniously as a good orchestra. The reality in common general hospitals is far from that of comprehensive cancer centers, particularly for postoperative approaches. The adjuvant therapy of rectal cancer is not codified worldwide, and it is strongly dependent on preoperative staging procedures, surgeon's acts and pathologist's decisions. Starting from our 10-year experience, we analyzed the various steps of postoperative approaches, defining possible decision errors, the incongruity of some attitudes, and the lack of knowledge of recent achievements of science in this disease., Methods: A total of 194 patients with advanced surgically removed rectal cancer (pT3-4 pN0-any pT pN+) treated with postoperative radio(chemo)therapy was reviewed retrospectively. Anterior resection was performed in 126, abdominoperineal resection in 48, and other surgical procedures in 20 patients. Irradiation was conducted with a single daily fraction of 1.8 Gy until 45 Gy, and chemotherapy consisted of the combination of 5-fluorouracil and folinic acid (Machover schedule): 47% of patients with positive nodes did not receive chemotherapy., Results: Five-year overall survival was 60.6% and relapse-free survival was 55.5%. The main prognostic factors were pathological T and N stages. The principal route of progression was distant metastases. Acute toxicity was severe in 1 case (drug toxic hepatitis) and very severe in 16 patients, and late severe sequelae appeared in 13 patients., Conclusions: The outcome of rectal cancer patients has not changed during the last decade, and this was confirmed in our study. The improvement of radiotherapy techniques has reduced the adverse acute and late toxicity. The best postsurgical approach for pT3pN0 cancer remains unsolved, as the good chemotherapy combination and the real solution could be the application of a new Consensus Conference.

Aims and Background: Informing cancer patients is an ethical, legal and deontological aspect of patient management. Patients need clear instructions in order to be able to accept or refuse medical procedures. Many reports in the literature have shown differences among physicians in informing cancer patients. The aim of this study was to assess patients' understanding of diagnosis, planned radiotherapy and risk of early and late effects, their satisfaction with the discussion with the doctor and correlation with anxiety and depression after the disclosure of a cancer diagnosis., Methods: From April to July 2000 a physician with psychiatric training conducted interviews with patients after their consultation with the radiotherapist and asked them to fill in a questionnaire. Anxiety and depression were measured by means of a scoring system [HAD(A) and HAD(D)] such as the patient's satisfaction and the physician's belief in it. Eighty-two outpatients referred to our radiotherapy department were studied., Results: We did not find any correlation between HAD(A) and HAD(D) scores and comprehension scores of disease, treatment schedule, side effects and patient satisfaction, or between any scores and presumed predictive variables such as diagnosis, gender, age, treatment aims, time from diagnosis, education, marital status, profession, life habits, and the role of the doctor obtaining the informed consent., Conclusions: We may conclude that informed consent does not seem to increase reactive anxiety or depression. Its quality is high in our department but must be improved.

Purpose: Prostate cancer patients in Italy are offered the choice of the full spectrum of possible treatment options for their disease, but the diffusion of the more recent technological refinements among the Radiation Oncology centers is not homogeneous and there is a need to establish a reference "historical" data source. This retrospective study describes the changing patterns in prostate cancer patient practice and the therapeutic results obtained in nine Radiation Oncology centers of Northern and Central Italy (five in Northern Italy and four in Central Italy)., Methods and Materials: A total of 1759 prostate cancer patients, radically treated in the nine radiotherapy (RT) centers between 1980 and 1998, made up the study population. Data collected for each patient included clinical, pathologic, therapeutic features, and toxicity. The overall survival, disease-specific survival (DSS), and clinical relapse-free survival (RFS) were calculated for the whole series and for the subsets of patients defined by different clinical, pathologic, and therapeutic features, according to three accrual periods (A, 1980-1990; B, 1991-1994; and C, 1995-1998). Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify prognostic factors related to survival and late adverse effects (cystitis and proctitis) probability., Results: Patient accrual increased markedly during the 2 decades considered, and the percentage of cases with Stage C or D disease dropped from 49% (period A) to 43% (period B) to 37% (period C) (p < 0.0001, chi-square). The baseline prostate-specific antigen value was available for 10%, 76%, and 95% of the cases treated in the three different periods. The major changes in the therapeutic options were an increase in dose to the prostate (>66 Gy in 44%, 84%, and 93% of the patients treated in period A, B, and C, respectively); a reduction in treated volumes, including pelvic lymphatic drainage (56-39% before 1995, 22% thereafter); and an increase in cases treated in association with hormonal therapy (50% before 1991, 80% thereafter). Lower energy (<10 MV) photon beams were progressively abandoned (12% before 1990 vs. 6-7% thereafter), along with an increase in the use of blocks (60% in the last 4 years of the study vs. about 30-40% before 1995) and "conformal" RT (applied in 41% of cases treated after 1994). The actuarial RFS, DSS, and overall survival rate at 5 years was, respectively, 60% +/- 2%, 75% +/- 2%, 66% +/- 2% for period A; 74% +/- 2%, 90% +/- 1%, 83% +/- 2%, for period B; and 67% +/- 5%, 90% +/- 2%, 79% +/- 5% for period C. The actuarial overall survival, DSS, and RFS rate for the whole series of 1759 patients was 77% +/- 1%, 86% +/- 1%, and 68% +/- 1% at 5 years, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed that only American Urologic Association stage, grade, dose to the prostate, accrual period, association with hormonal treatment after (or both after and before) RT (only in terms of DSS and RFS), and baseline prostate-specific antigen value (only for RFS) retained prognostic significance in the final Cox model., Conclusion: The increase in the accrual of prostate cancer patients radically treated with RT has been accompanied by considerable changes in the clinical features at presentation, as well as in the staging and treatment procedures. Patients treated more recently had better survival results. An earlier stage and more favorable grade were linked with better overall, DSS, and RFS at multivariate analysis. Lower prostate-specific antigen baseline values were also related to better RFS. Better results were obtained with higher radiation doses, and the dose to tumor seemed the most important treatment-related prognostic factor. The toxicity (cystitis and proctitis, every Radiation Therapy Oncology Group grade) was substantially the same in the different accrual periods, but larger treated volumes and higher doses appeared to increase the incidence of late effects.