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This review gives a perspective of selected advances made since the middle of the 20th century in plant disease modelling, and the associated increase in the number of models published during that time frame. This progress can be mainly attributed to advances in (i) sensors and automatic environmental data collection technology, (ii) instrumentation and methods for studying botanical epidemiology, and (iii) data analytics and computer science. We review the evolution of techniques for developing data-based (empirical) models and process-based (mechanistic) models using the wheat rusts as a case study. We also describe the increased importance of knowledge about biological processes for plant disease modeling by using apple scab as a second case study. For both wheat rusts and apple scab, we describe how the models have evolved over the last 50 years by considering certain milestones that have been achieved in disease modeling. Finally, we describe how plant disease models are used as part of a multi-modelling approach to develop decision-making tools in the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

Seed inoculation with beneficial microorganisms has gained importance as it has been proven to show biostimulant activity in plants, especially in terms of abiotic/biotic stress tolerance and plant growth promotion, representing a sustainable way to ensure yield stability under low input sustainable agriculture. Nevertheless, limited knowledge is available concerning the molecular and physiological processes underlying the root-inoculant symbiosis or plant response at the root system level. Our work aimed to integrate the interrelationship between agronomic traits, rhizosphere microbial population and metabolic processes in roots, following seed treatment with either arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) or Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). To this aim, maize was grown under open field conditions with either optimal or reduced nitrogen availability. Both seed treatments increased nitrogen uptake efficiency under reduced nitrogen supply revealed some microbial community changes among treatments at root microbiome level and limited yield increases, while significant changes could be observed at metabolome level. Amino acid, lipid, flavone, lignan, and phenylpropanoid concentrations were mostly modulated. Integrative analysis of multi-omics datasets (Multiple Co-Inertia Analysis) highlighted a strong correlation between the metagenomics and the untargeted metabolomics datasets, suggesting a coordinate modulation of root physiological traits.

Simple Summary Black-foot is an important grapevine disease caused by a soil-borne fungal pathogens complex, which are collectively known as Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morphs. In organic viticulture, both sown and native cover crop species can act as potential reservoirs of black-foot associated fungi. In our study a wide survey of cover crops grown in organic vineyards was conducted over a diverse range of climatic zones in six different European countries to acquire information about the presence of Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morphs on their roots. Several fungal species associated with black-foot disease were found on some of the cover crops evaluated in all the countries. These results provide valuable information for a reasoned choice of cover crop species, or a species mix, that can be used in organic viticulture. This is particularly important for maximizing their benefits and reducing potential problems in vineyards. (1) Background. An extensive survey of grapevine-sown cover crops and spontaneous weed flora was conducted from 2019 to 2020 in organic vineyards in six European countries (France, Italy, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland). Our main objective was to detect and identify the presence of Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morphs species associated with black-foot disease on their roots. (2) Methods. Fungal isolations from root fragments were performed on culture media. Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morph species were identified by analyzing the DNA sequence data of the histone H3 (his3) gene region. In all, 685 plants belonging to different botanical families and genera were analyzed. Cylindrocarpon-like asexual morphs were recovered from 68 plants (9.9% of the total) and approximately 0.97% of the plated root fragments. (3) Results. Three fungal species (Dactylonectria alcacerensis, Dactylonectria torresensis, Ilyonectria robusta) were identified. Dactylonectria torresensis was the most frequent, and was isolated from many cover crop species in all s

The rational control of harmful organisms for plants (pests) forms the basis of the integrated pest management (IPM), and is fundamental for ensuring agricultural productivity while maintaining economic and environmental sustainability. The high level of complexity of the decision processes linked to IPM requires careful evaluations, both economic and environmental, considering benefits and costs associated with a management action. Plant protection models and other decision tools (DTs) have assumed a key role in supporting decision-making process in pest management. The advantages of using DTs in IPM are linked to their capacity to process and analyze complex information and to provide outputs supporting the decision-making process. Nowadays, several DTs have been developed, tackling different issues, and have been applied in different climatic conditions and agricultural contexts. However, their use in crop management is restricted to only certain areas and/or to a limited group of users. In this paper, we review the current state-of-the-art related to DTs for IPM, investigate the main modelling approaches used, and the different fields of application. We also identify key drivers influencing their adoption and provide a set of critical success factors to guide the development and facilitate the adoption of DTs in crop protection.

BACKGROUND: Control of Botrytis bunch rot (BBR) is currently based on the application of fungicides at four timings corresponding to specific growth stages of vines: end of flowering (A), pre-bunch closure (B), veraison (C) and before harvest (D). The current research provides a network meta-analysis of 116 studies conducted between 1963 and 2016 in nine countries, in which 14 strategies (based on combinations of 1, 2, 3, or 4 sprays applied in A, B, C, and/or D) were compared. RESULTS: When a one-spray strategy was applied, BBR control was more effective with sprays applied in A, C, or D than B. With a two-spray strategy, strategy AC provided similar control as strategy BC; strategy CD also provided good control. For a 3-spray strategy, the best disease control was consistently obtained with strategy ACD. Four-spray strategy ABCD provided the best control but often involved needless sprays so that the routine application of four sprays is not justified. CONCLUSIONS: Spraying at timing A seems to be very important for achieving efficient and flexible disease control. Flexibility is reduced by spraying at timing B rather than A. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Decision-making for integrated pest management (IPM) in crops requires the assessment of multiple risk factors. Plant disease models have been used to predict disease risk and support decisions about whether and when to protect crops based on environmental conditions. In addition to requiring information about disease risks, correct decision-making also requires answers to several questions. These include: Is the plant susceptible to infection? Is the plant protected by a previous fungicide application? Which fungicide should be used for the specific application? Which dose of the product should be used, and when should it be applied? Obtaining answers to these questions requires a multiple-modelling approach in which models for diseases are combined with those for plant growth and for the effects of fungicides. This review discusses models that predict fungicide efficacy dynamics based on fungicide physical mode of action, fungicide localisation on/within host plants, fungicide effects on the pathogen, and the dynamics of fungicide residues. Empirical and mechanistic models are considered. Empirical models have been mainly developed by fitting equations to field data. Mechanistic models consider the processes that determine fungicide dynamics and effects, and these are generally considered to be superior to empirical models, but parameterisation of mechanistic models is challenging. A new modelling approach is described that combines the main processes of mechanistic models with simple parameterisation based on laboratory experiments, practical knowledge, and technical information. Examples are also provided of systems that calculate fungicide dose and application time. Decision support systems are described as tools that provide farmers with all of the information required for correct decision-making in IPM.

This article addresses the modelling of crop health and its impact on crop losses, with a special emphasis on plant diseases. Plant disease epidemiological models have many different shapes. We propose a summary of modelling structures for plant disease epidemics, which stem from the concepts of infection rate, of site, of basic infection rate corrected for removals (Rc), and of basic reproductive number (R0). Crop losses, the quantitative and qualitative impacts of diseases and pests on crop performances, can be expressed along many different dimensions. We focus on yield loss, defined as the difference between the attainable yield and the actual yield, in a production situation. The modelling of yield loss stems from the concept of damage mechanism, which can be applied to the wide range of organisms (including pathogens, weeds, arthropods, or nematodes) that may negatively affect crop growth and performances. Damage mechanisms are incorporated in crop growth models to simulate yield losses. In both fields, epidemiology and crop loss, we discuss the process of model development, including model simplification. We emphasize model simplification as a main avenue towards model genericity. This is especially relevant to enable addressing the diversity of crop pathogens and pests. We also discuss the usefulness of considering differing evaluation criteria depending on the stage of model development, and thus, depending on modelling objectives. We illustrate progress made on two global key crops where model simplification has been critical; rice and wheat. Modelling pests and diseases, and of the yield losses they cause on these two crops, lead us to propose the concept of crop health syndrome as a set of injury functions, each representing the dynamics of an injury (such as, for example, the time-course of an epidemic). Crop health in a given context can be represented by the set of such injury functions, which in turn can be used as drivers for crop loss models.

The use of several microbial biocontrol agents to combat Botrytis cinerea, the causal agent of grey mould, has been studied. However, only a few microorganisms have been developed as biofungicides, which are currently used in some countries, mostly in organic farming. The main reason for the limited market uptake of microbial biofungicides is their debated variable efficacy. To cope with poor survival in the canopy, due to unfavourable environmental conditions or their intrinsic lower level of disease control compared to synthetic chemical fungicides, use of a mixture of two or more microorganisms with different environmental requirements and mechanisms of action has been proposed with contrasting results. However, their use in strategies involving calculated timing of the microbial biocontrol agents, taking into consideration their mechanism of action in relation to the epidemiology and pathogenesis of the disease, has never been attempted in relation to combating grey mould on grapes. The results of four years of trials in three locations in Northern and Central Italy show that Trichoderma atroviride, Aureobasidium pullulans and Bacillus subtilis, applied at bunch-closure, veraison and pre-harvest, respectively, controlled B. cinerea on bunches very satisfactorily, and the results did not differ from those obtained with a strategy combining the three biofungicides, applied at the aforementioned stages. Colonisation of berries by each of the different microbial biocontrol agents at harvest time did not differ for individual treatments or when applied in the combined strategy, suggesting that the microorganisms did not negatively interfere with each other and that they may possibly occupy different ecological niches. The high level of efficacy of the tested biocontrol agents against grey mould can be explained with the relatively low-medium level of the disease, their integration with agronomic practices or the optimal timing of the treatment.

The vital stain fluorescein diacetate (FDA) has long been used to assess the viability of Erysiphe necator ascospores in chasmothecia. To determine the viability of animal, plant and other cells, more complex staining procedures, for example simultaneous double-staining procedures based on the use of FDA and propidium iodide (PI), have also been widely used. This paper reports a refined, detailed version of this method and its limitations, where PI was replaced with ethidium bromide (EtBr), to be used in testing the viability of E. necator ascospores during overwintering in chasmothecia.

The use of resistant varieties against downy mildew (DM, Plasmopara viticola) is increasingly gaining ground in Europe to reduce fungicide applications. A research was conducted to characterize the resistance components to DM in 16 grapevine genotypes bringing one or more of the following resistance genes from Muscadinia and American Vitis spp.: Rpv3, Rpv4, Rpv10, Rpv11, and Rpv12. The following resistance components were assessed in monocyclic experiments with artificial inoculation on leaf discs: i) infection efficiency of sporangia (percentage of the inoculation sites showing DM symptoms); ii) AUDPC (area under the disease progress curve); iii) incubation length; iv) latency period (in degree-days); v) sporangia produced per unit of DM lesion (number of sporangia per mm2 of lesion area); v) infectivity of the produced sporangia (by re-inoculation on susceptible variety); and vi) infectiousness (time a DM lesion produces sporangia, evaluated through repeated washings). Leaf discs were excised from fully developed young leaves collected in 2014 and 2015 at shoot growing, flowering and fruit set. Resistance components were expressed at different degrees in the different genotypes and at the different growth stages, with significant differences in comparison to the susceptible Vitis vinifera variety used as reference (Merlot). Data from monocyclic experiments were used for calibrating a DM epidemiological model able to predict disease progress in resistant genotypes. The research was funded by the FP7 European collaborative project “Innovine” (grant agreement n° 311775). Federica Bove carried out this work within the Doctoral School Agrisystem of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Italy).

Pesticides represent the major input in pome fruit across Europe. They are mainly used on a calendar-based approach in order to control a large number of pests and diseases causing both direct and indirect losses. This situation has stimulated research for innovative tools and methods for pest management and the PURE project (. www.pure-ipm.eu) organised a biointensive framework to demonstrate that several solutions are now available but they need to be properly transferred to the growers to be applied on a large scale. This paper presents the experience of the PURE project across demonstration orchards in different countries. The aim was to develop a multicriteria evaluation to help more clearly define the advantages and disadvantages of applying innovative Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems, for different pests (pear psylla and apple codling moth) and diseases (pear brown spot and apple scab) on pome fruit, compared to standard IPM (i.e. currently adopted IPM system). The multicriteria approach permitted to assess environmental risks, economic effects and sustainability impact for each of the innovative systems tested. This multicriteria assessment showed that, in general, innovative performed better than standard for environmental quality and provided similar yield and pest management without any significant extra costs.

Several pests and diseases have grapevine as their favourite host and the vineyard as preferred environment, so an intensive pesticide schedule is usually required to meet qualitative and quantitative production standards. The need to prevent the negative impact of synthetic chemical pesticides on human health and the environment and the consumer expectations in term of chemical residues in food stimulated the research of innovative tools and methods for sustainable pest management. The research project PURE (www.pure-ipm.eu) was a Europe-wide framework, which demonstrated that several solutions are now available for the growers and evaluated several new alternatives that are under development or almost ready for being applied in practice. Although the use of resistant/tolerant varieties is not yet feasible in several traditional grape growing areas, at least part of the synthetic chemical pesticides can be substituted with biocontrol agents to control pests and pathogens and/or pheromone mating disruption, or the number of treatments can be reduced by the use of decision support systems, which identify the optimal timing for the applications. This review presents the state of the art and the perspectives in the field of grapevine protection tools and strategies.

Downy mildew (DM) caused by the oomycete Plasmopara viticola is one of the most important grapevine diseases. The use of DM resistant grapevine varieties is getting increasingly consideration and importance in Europe, as a possible mitigation measure to reduce the use of fungicides. The goal of the present work is to characterize the resistance components to DM in grapevine genotypes (specifically Regent, Rkatsiteli, Bronner, Johanniter, Solaris, 32-078, 34-111, Villaris, Calandro, Felicia, Reberger, Palava, Royal Merlot, Gf.93-22-6, Early Merlot) bringing different resistance genes (Rpv 3, 4, 10, 11 and 12) from Muscadinia and Vitis American species. The following resistance components were assessed in monocyclic experiments carried out under environment controlled conditions: (i) infection efficiency of sporangia (as a percentage of the inoculation sites showing DM symptoms); (ii) AUDPC (area under the disease progress curve); (iii) incubation length, (iv) latency period, (v) sporangia produced per unit of infected area (as number of sporangia per mm2 of lesion area); and (v) infectiousness of the produced sporangia. Resistance components were assessed after artificial inoculation of leaf discs with a natural population of P. viticola. Leaf discs were excised from fully developed, young leaves collected in 2014 and 2015 at shoot growing and at flowering/fruit set. Resistance components were expressed at different degrees in the different genotypes and at the different sampling times, with significant differences in comparison to the susceptible Vitis vinifera variety used as reference (Merlot). For instance, infection efficiency ranged between 60 and 99%, the latency period lasted between 104 and 132 degree-days, and the production of sporangia varied between 80 and 1.1×103 sporangia per mm2 of DM lesion. The research was partially funded by the European collaborative project “Innovine”, that has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program

A mechanistic model for Botrytis cinerea on grapevine was developed. The model, which accounts for conidia production on various inoculum sources and for multiple infection pathways, considers two infection periods. During the first period (“inflorescences clearly visible” to “berries groat-sized”), the model calculates: i) infection severity on inflorescences and young clusters caused by conidia (SEV1). During the second period (“majority of berries touching” to “berries ripe for harvest”), the model calculates: ii) infection severity of ripening berries by conidia (SEV2); and iii) severity of berry-to-berry infection caused by mycelium (SEV3). The model was validated in 21 epidemics (vineyard × year combinations) between 2009 and 2014 in Italy and France. A discriminant function analysis (DFA) was used to: i) evaluate the ability of the model to predict mild, intermediate, and severe epidemics; and ii) assess how SEV1, SEV2, and SEV3 contribute to epidemics. The model correctly classified the severity of 17 of 21 epidemics. Results from DFA were also used to calculate the daily probabilities that an ongoing epidemic would be mild, intermediate, or severe. SEV1 was the most influential variable in discriminating between mild and intermediate epidemics, whereas SEV2 and SEV3 were relevant for discriminating between intermediate and severe epidemics. The model represents an improvement of previous B. cinerea models in viticulture and could be useful for making decisions about Botrytis bunch rot control.

To develop a new biofungicide product against grapevine powdery mildew, caused by Erysiphe necator, cultural characteristics and mycoparasitic activities of pre-selected strains of Ampelomyces spp. were compared in laboratory tests to the commercial strain AQ10.

The available knowledge on black-rot of grape was retrieved from literature, analyzed, and synthesized to develop a mechanistic model of the life cycle of the pathogen (Guignardia bidwelii) based on the systems analysis. An analysis of published, quantitative information was conducted to develop a mechanistic model driven by weather and vine phenology. The model was then evaluated for its ability to represent the real system and its usefulness for understanding black-rot epidemics by using three typical epidemics. Finally, weaknesses in our knowledge are discussed.

A weather-driven model was developed to predict P. viticola population dynamics on grape leaf surfaces during a discrete wet period. To develop this model, the relationships between temperature, wetness duration, zoospore release, and infection were investigated with environmentally controlled experiments, and equations were developed that fitted the experimental data.

A fuzzy control system (FCS) was developed to determine whether a fungicide application is needed to control Plasmopara viticola, the causal agent of downy mildew, in a vineyard. The FCS was conceived as an expert system to be used in connection with vite.net, which is a decision support system (DSS) for sustainable vineyard management. Using the information provided by the DSS, the FCS was able to reproduce the expert reasoning regarding the decision to apply a fungicide against P. viticola in a vineyard.

Nel 2014 la direttiva europea n. 128/2009 è entrata in vigore anche in Italia e nell’ottica di facilitare l’implementazione di un uso sostenibile dei prodotti fitosanitari chiede agli Stati Membri di implementare e diffondere i principi della produzione integrata e di assicurare strumenti che consentano agli agricoltori l’accesso alle informazioni necessarie per prendere le decisioni corrette. I sistemi di supporto alle decisioni (in inglese Decision Support Systems, DSSs) rappresentano uno strumento ideale per fornire tutte le informazioni necessarie ed aggiornate per la gestione di una specifica coltura, malattia o infestazione.

L’oidio, o mal bianco, della vite è causato dal fungo ascomicete Erysiphe (precedentemente noto come Uncinula) necator noto anche, nella sua forma conidica, come Oidium tuckeri. Gli strumenti e le conoscenze per combattere questa malattia sono in costante aggiornamento e affinamento e oggi permettono di avere informazioni in tempo reale attraverso l’impiego dei modelli epidemiologici per poter realizzare, da subito, l’intervento giusto al momento giusto con la giusta dose di prodotto.

A new Decision Support System (DSS), named vite.net®, was developed for sustainable management of vineyards and is intended for the vineyard manager (the person who makes decisions about the vineyard management or suggests the proper actions to the grape-grower). The DSS has two main parts: (i) an integrated system for real-time monitoring of the vineyard components (air, soil, plants, pests, and diseases); and (ii) a web-based tool that analyses these data by using advanced modelling techniques and then provides up-to-date information for managing the vineyard in the form of alerts and decision supports. The information is tailored to a vineyard, or part of a vineyard, or a number of vineyards that are uniformly managed throughout the season. In the design and development of vite.net®, the so-called ‘problem of implementation’ which frequently leads to under-utilization of the DSSs was specifically addressed by different solutions, including involving potential users. Large-scale application of the DSS started in 2013 and was preceded by: i) expert elicitation (to obtain end-user opinion on the usability of the DSS compared to their standard methods and tools to make decisions about vineyard management); ii) plot-scale application (to evaluate the DSS in comparison with the usual practice in different vine-growing areas of Europe); iii) pilot-scale application (to evaluate the DSS use as a part of the decision processes of growers, taking into account the individual attitude of the users towards the Internet and web-based systems, as well as their attitude toward risk). The DSS vite.net® has been made commercially available from January 2013 and during the 2013 season it was used by 47 farmers who applied the DSS on more than 3000 hectares of vineyard across Italy, and to 46 advisors. Statistics about the use of the DSS by these growers based on their access to the web portal of vite.net® as well as the feedback collected during the regular contacts with the grower

Students need to be familiar with the different modelling approaches and related terminology. The oomycete Plasmopara viticola, the causal agent of downy mildew, a major disease that occurs on Vitis vinifera worldwide, is presented as a case study. P. viticola is a polycyclic fungal pathogen with primary and secondary infection cycles caused by sexual and asexual spores, respectively. Primary infections are of particular relevance because they are a key factor in disease control and are the basis of several models developed in recent decades in different parts of the world. Students must have a minimum of familiarity with this pathogen in order to understand the different models presented and benefit from the exercise.

Black rot is a fungal disease of grapevine that, in the last few years, has had a recrudescence in some areas. The knowledge on the life cycle of Guignardia bidwellii was retrieved through a systematic literature review and used to draw a mechanistic model able to simulate the fungus life cycle as influenced by weather and grapevine phenology. A meta-analysis was carried out on literature data to develop the mathematical equations describing the system both quantitatively and dynamically. Due to the lack of sufficient information, assumptions were introduced derived from similar systems. The model was then evaluated for its ability to describe the black rot epidemics in three representative cases. The model accurately represented the real system and has proven to be a useful tool for understanding the dynamics of epidemics. Further research will be necessary to acquire additional knowledge on some biological processes, to further validate the model and verify its use as a predictive tool for the disease

A new Decision Support System (DSS), named vite.net®, was recently developed for sustainable management of vineyards. The DSS is available in real-time on a web platform, accessible through personal username and password. The DSS is based on: i) a network of weather stations, ii) a server repository able to store weather data and site-specific information on cultural management (such as the list of treatments applied), iii) a set of mathematical models, that use the data collected in fields as input data to produce useful information about the tactical management of treatments and other cultural practices. After a pilot application in organic viticulture, the DSS was used on large scale by about 50 farmers and 50 technicians (both private and public) in different Italian grapevine growing areas, from Friuli to Sicily, on about 3,000 ha

A temperature-driven, mechanistic model predicting the development of Erysiphe necator chasmothecia in vineyards was developed and validated in 38 vineyards in the Po Valley (northern Italy), Baden-W€urttemberg (Germany), and South Australia between 2005 and 2011. The model, which begins operating when the first ascocarp initials are formed, predicts on a daily basis the proportions of chasmothecia at the yellow, brown and black maturity stage. The initialization date was estimated with an iterative procedure that minimized the residuals of predicted versus observed values. In all vineyards, a drop to more favourable temperatures for ascocarp production over 2–4 days in the week or in the 2 weeks before the model initialization date probably triggered chasmothecia production. Model predictions provided a good fit of observed data (coefficients of determination, model accuracy, efficacy and efficiency were all ≥0 90), with some overestimation. When predicted production of black chasmothecia (on leaves) was compared with observed dispersal of chasmothecia from vines, lack of splashing rain was probably the main cause of overestimation. When observed numbers of yellow, brown or black chasmothecia on leaves were compared with model predictions, removal of the developing chasmothecia by rainfall was probably the main cause of overestimation. Inclusion of the effect of rainfall on the removal of immature and mature chasmothecia from the powdery mildew colonies could improve the model. The model could be used to time the application of fungicides or biocontrol agents for reducing ascocarp formation and reducing primary inoculum in the following season.

Although many Decision Support Systems (DSSs) have been developed for crop management, DSSs have contributed little to practical agriculture because of the so-called ‘problem of implementation’; underutilisation has been ascribed to both technical limitations of the DSSs and to farmer attitude towards DSSs. A new DSS, named vite.net , was developed for sustainable management of vineyards and is intended for the vineyard manager (the person who makes decisions about the vineyard management or suggests the proper actions to the grape-grower). The DSS has two main parts: (i) an integrated system for real-time monitoring of the vineyard components (air, soil, plants, pests, and diseases) and (ii) a webbased tool that analyses these data by using advanced modelling techniques and then provides up-todate information for managing the vineyard in the form of alerts and decision supports. The information is tailored to a vineyard, or part of a vineyard, or a number of vineyards that are uniformly managed throughout the season. In the design and development of vite.net , the implementation problem was specifically addressed by: (i) focusing on the important vineyard problems with a holistic approach (the DSS incorporates overall management solutions for growers); (ii) using automation and integration in data collection, and supporting flexible input efforts by the user; (iii) developing and validating fit-topurpose, mechanistic, dynamic models; (iv) designing a user-friendly interface and providing complete and easy-to-understand information; (v) delivering the DSS through the Web and thereby enabling both continuous updating by the provider and flexible access by the user; (vi) designing the DSS with the goal of assisting the decision maker (by providing necessary information) rather than replacing the decision maker; (vii) involving potential users during vite.net development and testing so as to obtain insight into how users make decisions; (viii) communicating the benefit

The life cycle of Plasmopara viticola (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) Berl. & De Toni, the causal agent of grapevine downy mildew, consists of sexual and asexual cycles that occur throughout the grape-growing season. Within 5 to 10 days after the initial infection, sporangiophores and sporangia are produced and form a dense, raised, white-cottony mildew on the underside of lesions. Sporangia become airborne and release clonal zoospores as secondary inoculum that are able to infect all green tissues of the vines following the same process as in primary infections. Secondary disease cycles occur under suitable conditions for sporulation, dispersal and infection. Different models have been developed to simulate the progress of downy mildew epidemics due to infections caused by asexual sporangia of P. viticola in Switzerland, France, Austria, Germany, and Italy. All these model have been developed using common, old literature (mainly referring to experiments carried out under laboratory conditions or with host plants different from Vitis vinifera) and work in a similar way; they provide a prediction of disease severity or a risk index that guides the scheduling of fungicide applications. Recent studies were performed on P. viticola sporulation, dispersal and infection that provided new knowledge that can be incorporated in the disease models. Therefore, a new, weather-driven, mechanistic model for secondary infection of P. viticola was developed based on the new knowledge following the systems analysis. The process leading to secondary infections was separated into different stages: from the appearance of oil spots on leaves, to repeated sporulation on lesions, sporangial dispersal to new leaves, survival of sporangia, and finally infection. The system changes from one stage to another at different rates, according to mathematical equations which depend on the environmental conditions. Based on a recent study carried out under vineyard’s conditions, 3 consecutive wet hours at ni

Powdery mildew of grapevine, caused by the ascomycete Erysiphe necator (Schw.) Burr., is a polycyclic disease with primary infections caused by ascospores produced in the overwintered fruiting bodies (called chasmothecia), and secondary infections caused by asexual conidia produced in powdery mildew colonies during the grapevine growing season. Despite an initial controversy about the importance of the ascospores as a relevant source of inoculum for the disease, ascospores are now considered an important form of primary inoculum in many grape-growing areas. Sanitation, i.e. the interventions aimed at reducing the overwintering inoculum that triggers the disease epidemic in the following year, has been already tested in vineyards and is now considered a key part of the disease control strategy in the vineyards with severe attach of powdery mildew after harvest. Sanitation can be performed using different kinds of fungicides, natural compounds or the biocontrol agent Ampelomyces spp., which are all more effective when applied against developing chasmothecia, than on mature or dispersed ones. A model was therefore developed, based on the principles of the systems analysis, to predict the development and maturation of the E. necator chasmothecia in the vineyard. The model considers four state variables, which represent the four developmental stages of the chasmothecia: from the white ascocarp primordia to the yellow, brown and at the end black mature chasmothecia. Chasmothecia advance from one stage of development to the next at specific rates that depend on air temperature and are calculated based on the equations developed by Legler et al. (2012). Mature black chasmothecia are finally dispersed by rain splashes whenever there is a measurable rainfall. To validate the model, a total of 38 commercial vineyards were considered Northern Italy, Baden-Württemberg (Germany), and Riverland region (South Australia). In each vineyard, a plot was maintained untreated with fungic

Guignardia bidwellii (Ellis) Viala & Ravaz (anamorph: Phyllosticta ampelicida (Englem.) van der Aa) is the causal agent of the black-rot disease on grapevine. In the recent years, there was a recrudescence of the disease across Europe with severe epidemics. Black rot poses a serious threat to both yield, with losses from 5 to 80%, and wine quality. Black-rot requires fungicide control between bud break and berry touch or behind, which is the period in which vineyards need to be protected against downy and powdery mildews. In recent years, innovative model-based fungicide applications have been introduced which lead to reduce the use of fungicides against mildews by 30-40% but, at the same time, keep vines unprotected against black-rot when there is no risk for mildews. A model for black-rot should be then useful to decide the need of specific sprays or the necessity to control mildews by using fungicides with either preventative or curative activity against G. bidwelii. Simple models have been developed for black-rot based on the length of the wetness period and the respective temperature conditions required for an infection to occur. These models have limitations in which they do not consider neither the presence and abundance of inoculum nor variations in host susceptibility; in addition, these models do not provide quantitative estimates of risk. A prototype of a new, mechanistic, weather- and plant-driven model for black-rot was developed according to systems analysis. The relational diagram of the model considers the main stages of the life cycle of G. bidwelii which represent the state variables of the model. The model starts with three state variables which correspond to the three overwintering forms (pycnidia and pseudothecia on mummified bunches and pycnidia on infected lesion on canes and spurs) where ascospores and conidia progressively form and mature. Then, air-borne ascospores and splash-borne conidia are dispersed and deposited on vines where they can

Although the Plasmopara viticola patogen life's cycle and the disease epidemiology have been studied intensively, quantitative dependency of some infection processes on environmental variables is still unclear. The combined effects of light, temperature, and wetness duration on the release of zoospores from zoosporangia and the infection efficiency of these zoospores were investigated trough environmental controlled and semi-field experiments. Zoospores were released after 6h of incubation between 10 and 25°C, after 9h at 5°C, and at lower percentages at 30°C.When these zoospores were inoculated on Vitis vinifera leaf disks, their infection efficiency were negatively related to the time elapsed between release and inoculation. It seems that swimming in water progressively reduced the infection efficiency of zoospores. Irrespective of the light regime, sporangia inoculated on V.vinifera leaves caused infection after only 1h of wetness when incubated between 10 and 25°C, nonetheless longer wetness duration was needed to reach the maximum infection efficiency: 3h at 20/25°C and 6h at 10/15°C. No infection occurred at 5 and 30°C. Combination of temperature/wetness duration also influenced disease severity. These results were fit to a nonlinear model to predict infection severity for each combination of temperature/wetness duration; this model can be used in infection prediction instead of the simpler criterion of Blaeser and Weltzien (1979) as occurs for V.labrusca (Lalancette et al., 1988). Incubation and latency periods were mainly influenced by temperature; when incubated at 10/15°C the pathogen required 9days for the appearance of symptoms, and only 4days at 20/25°C. Below 15°C, P.viticola caused infection but did not produce sporangia.

Organic viticulture has grown considerably in the last decade; nonetheless, organic farming still has a huge potential for innovation and improved solutions specifically for the control of pests and pathogens. The research project VineMan.org (www.vineman-org.eu), funded by European Union within the CORE Organic II ERA-Net (project no. 249667), aims at improving disease control, one of the most difficult tasks in organic viticulture, through innovative cropping systems based on integration of: i) enhanced plant resistance, ii) vineyard management practices, iii) use of biological control agents, and iv) targeted applications based on disease models. During the first year, the above mentioned components of an integrated system have been developed and tested. Natural compounds were tested with a leaf disk assay and some of them were able to activate plant innate immunity. Early leaf removal, resulting in modified microclimate and changed bunch compactness and berry skin structure, was effective in reducing grey mould incidence on grapes. The entomopathogenic fungus Lecanicillium lecanii was used against the leafhopper Scaphoideus titanus, the vector of the flavescence dorée phytoplasma, and proved to be virulent to its second instar nymphs. Disease models for downy and powdery mildews were implemented in a web-based decision support system for organic viticulture, and tested in several Italian vineyards; the number of copper treatments against downy mildew was reduced by 36% on average. Finally, innovative strategies based on these results were designed and evaluated for overall sustainability trough an ex-ante assessment. These strategies are under test in different viticultural areas of Europe.

Integrated Pest Management is based on dynamic processes and requires decision-making at strategic, tactical, and operational levels. Relative to decision makers in conventional agricultural systems, decision makers in IPM systems require more knowledge and updated information, and must deal with greater complexity. It has become clear that IPM can be efficiently implemented only if the decision makers are adequately supported. Different tools have been developed for the support of decision-making in plant disease control, and these tools can be grouped in three categories: warning services, on-site devices, and decision support systems (DSSs). These tools work at different spatial and time scales, are provided to users by both public and private sources, focus on different communication modes, and can support multiple options for delivering information to farmers. Plant disease models are key components of any decision-support tool for disease control. Plant disease models produce predictions about the epidemic or single epidemic components that can be used as risk indicators. Characteristics, weaknesses, and strengths of the currently available decision tools are discussed and a new generation of model-based DSSs is shown, which is characterised by: i) a holistic treatment of crop management problems (pests, diseases, pesticide application timing and rates, etc.); ii) a conversion of complex decision processes into simple and easy-to-understand decision supports; iii) easy and rapid access through the Internet; and two-way communication between users and the provider that make it possible to consider contextspecific information.

The implementation of Integrated Pest Management requested by the European Directive on the sustainable use of pesticide (2009/128/CE) requires complex decision- making to growers, who need real time information about the vineyard environment and the disease risk, as well as increased knowledge on plant protection options, limitations and fulfilments. A web-based Decision Support System (DSS) was developed for helping viticulturists in decision-making about tactical management of the vineyard. The DSS, named Vite.net , is provided by Horta srl (www.horta-srl.com), is available for registered users via the internet and is composed by: i) a network of weather sensors; ii) a server repository that stores weather data and forecasts; iii) an user-friendly interface that makes it possible to insert vineyard-specific information (e.g., cultivar, trellis system) and monitoring data (e.g., date of disease onset) and show up-to-date graphical supports for informed decision-making; iv) mathematical models that use weather data, vineyard-specific information and monitoring data to predict the development of the main grapevine pests and diseases, the plant growth and development, and the risk of abiotic stresses, such as low temperature and drought. The DSS was developed within the MoDeM-IVM project, funded by the European Union's FP7 (grant-agreement n°262059), and was validated in commercial vineyards in Italy, Spain and Portugal. In these vine yards, plots managed according to the DSS were compared with the grower's practice and an untreated control. Results confirmed the advantages rising from the use of the DSS, with a 40-50% reduction of the number of fungicide treatments. In organic vine yards, the DSS made it possible a 37% reduction of the copper used to control downy mildew.

Although the Plasmopara viticola patogen life's cycle and the disease epidemiology have been studied intensively, quantitative dependency of some infection processes on environmental variables is still unclear. The combined effects of light, temperature, and wetness duration on the release of zoospores from zoosporangia and the infection efficiency of these zoospores were investigated trough environmental controlled and semi-field experiments. Zoospores were released after 6h of incubation between 10 and 25°C, after 9h at 5°C, and at lower percentages at 30°C.When these zoospores were inoculated on Vitis vinifera leaf disks, their infection efficiency were negatively related to the time elapsed between release and inoculation. It seems that swimming in water progressively reduced the infection efficiency of zoospores. Irrespective of the light regime, sporangia inoculated on V.vinifera leaves caused infection after only 1h of wetness when incubated between 10 and 25°C, nonetheless longer wetness duration was needed to reach the maximum infection efficiency: 3h at 20/25°C and 6h at 10/15°C. No infection occurred at 5 and 30°C. Combination of temperature/wetness duration also influenced disease severity. These results were fit to a nonlinear model to predict infection severity for each combination of temperature/wetness duration; this model can be used in infection prediction instead of the simpler criterion of Blaeser and Weltzien (1979) as occurs for V.labrusca (Lalancette et al., 1988). Incubation and latency periods were mainly influenced by temperature; when incubated at 10/15°C the pathogen required 9days for the appearance of symptoms, and only 4days at 20/25°C. Below 15°C, P.viticola caused infection but did not produce sporangia.

The implementation of Integrated Pest Management requested by the European Directive on the sustainable use of pesticide (2009/128/CE) requires complex decision- making to growers, who need real time information about the vineyard environment and the disease risk, as well as increased knowledge on plant protection options, limitations and fulfilments. A web-based Decision Support System (DSS) was developed for helping viticulturists in decision-making about tactical management of the vineyard. The DSS, named Vite.net , is provided by Horta srl (www.horta-srl.com), is available for registered users via the internet and is composed by: i) a network of weather sensors; ii) a server repository that stores weather data and forecasts; iii) an user-friendly interface that makes it possible to insert vineyard-specific information (e.g., cultivar, trellis system) and monitoring data (e.g., date of disease onset) and show up-to-date graphical supports for informed decision-making; iv) mathematical models that use weather data, vineyard-specific information and monitoring data to predict the development of the main grapevine pests and diseases, the plant growth and development, and the risk of abiotic stresses, such as low temperature and drought. The DSS was developed within the MoDeM-IVM project, funded by the European Union's FP7 (grant-agreement n°262059), and was validated in commercial vineyards in Italy, Spain and Portugal. In these vine yards, plots managed according to the DSS were compared with the grower's practice and an untreated control. Results confirmed the advantages rising from the use of the DSS, with a 40-50% reduction of the number of fungicide treatments. In organic vine yards, the DSS made it possible a 37% reduction of the copper used to control downy mildew.

Powdery mildew of grapevine, caused by the ascomycete Erysiphe necator (Schw.) Burr., is a polycyclic disease with primary infections caused by ascospores produced in the overwintered fruiting bodies (called chasmothecia), and secondary infections caused by asexual conidia produced in powdery mildew colonies during the grapevine growing season. Despite an initial controversy about the importance of the ascospores as a relevant source of inoculum for the disease, ascospores are now considered an important form of primary inoculum in many grape-growing areas. Sanitation, i.e. the interventions aimed at reducing the overwintering inoculum that triggers the disease epidemic in the following year, has been already tested in vineyards and is now considered a key part of the disease control strategy in the vineyards with severe attach of powdery mildew after harvest. Sanitation can be performed using different kinds of fungicides, natural compounds or the biocontrol agent Ampelomyces spp., which are all more effective when applied against developing chasmothecia, than on mature or dispersed ones. A model was therefore developed, based on the principles of the systems analysis, to predict the development and maturation of the E. necator chasmothecia in the vineyard. The model considers four state variables, which represent the four developmental stages of the chasmothecia: from the white ascocarp primordia to the yellow, brown and at the end black mature chasmothecia. Chasmothecia advance from one stage of development to the next at specific rates that depend on air temperature and are calculated based on the equations developed by Legler et al. (2012). Mature black chasmothecia are finally dispersed by rain splashes whenever there is a measurable rainfall. To validate the model, a total of 38 commercial vineyards were considered Northern Italy, Baden-Württemberg (Germany), and Riverland region (South Australia). In each vineyard, a plot was maintained untreated with fungic

Integrated Pest Management is based on dynamic processes and requires decision-making at strategic, tactical, and operational levels. Relative to decision makers in conventional agricultural systems, decision makers in IPM systems require more knowledge and updated information, and must deal with greater complexity. It has become clear that IPM can be efficiently implemented only if the decision makers are adequately supported. Different tools have been developed for the support of decision-making in plant disease control, and these tools can be grouped in three categories: warning services, on-site devices, and decision support systems (DSSs). These tools work at different spatial and time scales, are provided to users by both public and private sources, focus on different communication modes, and can support multiple options for delivering information to farmers. Plant disease models are key components of any decision-support tool for disease control. Plant disease models produce predictions about the epidemic or single epidemic components that can be used as risk indicators. Characteristics, weaknesses, and strengths of the currently available decision tools are discussed and a new generation of model-based DSSs is shown, which is characterised by: i) a holistic treatment of crop management problems (pests, diseases, pesticide application timing and rates, etc.); ii) a conversion of complex decision processes into simple and easy-to-understand decision supports; iii) easy and rapid access through the Internet; and two-way communication between users and the provider that make it possible to consider contextspecific information.

The life cycle of Plasmopara viticola (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) Berl. & De Toni, the causal agent of grapevine downy mildew, consists of sexual and asexual cycles that occur throughout the grape-growing season. Within 5 to 10 days after the initial infection, sporangiophores and sporangia are produced and form a dense, raised, white-cottony mildew on the underside of lesions. Sporangia become airborne and release clonal zoospores as secondary inoculum that are able to infect all green tissues of the vines following the same process as in primary infections. Secondary disease cycles occur under suitable conditions for sporulation, dispersal and infection. Different models have been developed to simulate the progress of downy mildew epidemics due to infections caused by asexual sporangia of P. viticola in Switzerland, France, Austria, Germany, and Italy. All these model have been developed using common, old literature (mainly referring to experiments carried out under laboratory conditions or with host plants different from Vitis vinifera) and work in a similar way; they provide a prediction of disease severity or a risk index that guides the scheduling of fungicide applications. Recent studies were performed on P. viticola sporulation, dispersal and infection that provided new knowledge that can be incorporated in the disease models. Therefore, a new, weather-driven, mechanistic model for secondary infection of P. viticola was developed based on the new knowledge following the systems analysis. The process leading to secondary infections was separated into different stages: from the appearance of oil spots on leaves, to repeated sporulation on lesions, sporangial dispersal to new leaves, survival of sporangia, and finally infection. The system changes from one stage to another at different rates, according to mathematical equations which depend on the environmental conditions. Based on a recent study carried out under vineyard’s conditions, 3 consecutive wet hours at ni

Guignardia bidwellii (Ellis) Viala & Ravaz (anamorph: Phyllosticta ampelicida (Englem.) van der Aa) is the causal agent of the black-rot disease on grapevine. In the recent years, there was a recrudescence of the disease across Europe with severe epidemics. Black rot poses a serious threat to both yield, with losses from 5 to 80%, and wine quality. Black-rot requires fungicide control between bud break and berry touch or behind, which is the period in which vineyards need to be protected against downy and powdery mildews. In recent years, innovative model-based fungicide applications have been introduced which lead to reduce the use of fungicides against mildews by 30-40% but, at the same time, keep vines unprotected against black-rot when there is no risk for mildews. A model for black-rot should be then useful to decide the need of specific sprays or the necessity to control mildews by using fungicides with either preventative or curative activity against G. bidwelii. Simple models have been developed for black-rot based on the length of the wetness period and the respective temperature conditions required for an infection to occur. These models have limitations in which they do not consider neither the presence and abundance of inoculum nor variations in host susceptibility; in addition, these models do not provide quantitative estimates of risk. A prototype of a new, mechanistic, weather- and plant-driven model for black-rot was developed according to systems analysis. The relational diagram of the model considers the main stages of the life cycle of G. bidwelii which represent the state variables of the model. The model starts with three state variables which correspond to the three overwintering forms (pycnidia and pseudothecia on mummified bunches and pycnidia on infected lesion on canes and spurs) where ascospores and conidia progressively form and mature. Then, air-borne ascospores and splash-borne conidia are dispersed and deposited on vines where they can

A plant disease model is a simplification of a real pathosystem (i.e., the relationships between a pathogen, a host plant, and the environment) that determine whether and how an epidemic develops over time and / or space. Different approaches have been used for the development of plant disease models, with relevant improvements in recent years. Empirical models have been elaborated using data collected under variable field conditions since the second half of the last century. The so called 3 10 rules for predicting first seasonal infection of grape downy mildew is a precursor of this empirical approach for understanding relationships between pathogens, plants and the environment. By using this approach, the model is developed by searching mathematical or statistical relationships between field collected data and these relationships do not necessarily have cause-effect meaning. Lack of knowledge, accuracy and, especially, robustness are the main weaknesses of these models, which impose accurate validation and, usually, proper calibration when these models are used in different environments or under changing climate. Recent methods of data analysis, like for instance neural networks, improve the capability of searching the mathematical structure of the model but they do not overcome the above mentioned weaknesses. Mechanistic models are a new class of models based on knowledge of biological and epidemiological behaviour of the system under study. These models (also referred to as explanatory, theoretical, or fundamental) explain the pathosystem on the basis of what is known about how the system works in relation to the influencing variables. Mechanistic models are dynamic, because they analyse the changes over time of the components of an epidemic due to the external, influencing variables. Dynamic modelling is based on the assumption that the state of the pathosystem in every moment can be quantitatively characterised and that changes in the system can be described b

Tree crops production are highly dependent on external inputs, namely pesticides. Redesign tree crop production on other bases becomes a necessity. Before being tested in an experimental station or in real farm conditions, the global sustainability of these newly designed orchards needs to be evaluated. Adapted on the DEXiPM® model, the DEXiPM-pomefruit tool has been designed to make an ex ante assessment of the sustainability of innovative orchard systems. This model is based on a decision tree breaking the decisional problems of sustainability assessment into simpler units, referring to the economic,social and environmental dimensions of sustainability. In the frame of the PURE European project, we tested DEXIPM-pomefruit relevancy to assess the sustainability of innovative orchards. Two apple production systems were compared: one with exclusion netting against codling moth and one without. Exclusion netting is an innovative control method, which decreases the number of treatments by 30 % since all treatments against codling moth are suppressed. Moreover nets represent a good protection against yield loss risk due to climatic conditions (i.e. hail). However, its cost requires an important investment capacity. Assessed by DEXiPM-Pomefruit, the exclusion netting system globally ranked better than the uncovered system. Concerning the social aspect, the result was similar for both production systems. In contrast, economical performances were improved in orchards covered with nets, which are therefore protected against the climatic risk of yield loss. Moreover, the important decrease in pesticide use under nets contributed to improve all environmental impact indicators. DEXiPM-pomefruit helped selecting the most promising innovations in a given context. It was also used as a dashboard to determine strengths and weaknesses of the tested production systems and therefore to identify potential improvements

Powdery mildew, caused by Erysiphe necator (Schw.) Burr., is one of the most widespread and economically important diseases of grapevine. It is a policyclic disease, with primary, sexual infection cycles followed by several secondary, asexual cycles. The primary inoculum consists of ascospores produced in chasmothecia overwintered on the bark of vines, or of conidia produced by the mycelium present in dormant buds. Nonetheless, in many grape-growing areas, flag shoots (i.e. shoots generated by the infected, dormant buds) are usually absent in commercial vineyards. Chasmothecia form in late summer on the affected host tissue and, once mature, are dispersed by rain splashes to the bark of vines. In the following spring they repeatedly release ascospores that trigger new infection. The usual approach to powdery mildew control consists of repeated applications of fungicides from budburst to berries pea-size, and more; sanitation, i.e. the process that reduces or eliminates the initial inoculum from which the disease epidemic starts, would be highly effective in early-season control of powdery mildew. Efficacy of sanitation has been already evaluated in Northern Italy; interestingly, the application of a BioControl Agent based on Ampelomyces quisqualis Ces. (the biofungicide AQ10® WG) gave good results, comparable with those obtained with fungicides. This biofungicide applied twice, before and after harvest (i.e., during the formation and maturation of the chasmothecia) halved disease severity on bunches until the pea-sized berries stage in the following season. When sanitation with A. quisqualis was coupled with early-season (i.e., between bud break and fruit set) sulphur applications scheduled according to a weather-driven disease prediction model, disease severity on bunches was reduced by 98% (vs. an 80% reduction with sulphur sprays alone). Since this new strategy provided very promising results under experimental field conditions, it is being adopted under commerci

Systematic literature review (SLR) is a method to retrieve, analyse and summarize research studies, conducted through an explicit and reproducible methodology. SLR includes meta-synthesis and meta-analysis to: (i) develop new conceptualizations and interpretations; (ii) combine the results of different studies in order to identify the overall trend of the results, and (iii) transform the findings of existing studies in raw data for further analysis and interpretation. SLRs have been carried out in many disciplines, but none was performed in plant pathology with the aim of developing mechanistic, dynamic models of specific patho-systems. In this work, the available knowledge on Guignardia bidwelii, the causal agent of black-rot of grapevine, was retrieved through a SLR and analysed to conceptualize the life cycle of the pathogen. Following the ‘systems analysis’ approach the life cycle was divided in three compartments: (i) production and maturation of ascospores from pseudothecia and conidia from pycnidia in berry mummies and cane lesions (i.e.,the primary inoculum of the disease); (ii) infection caused by ascospores and conidia; (iii) disease onset and production of secondary inoculum. A mechanistic model, driven by weather and vine phenology data was developed from a meta-analysis of the quantitative information available in the literature. In particular, new equations were developed for ascospore and conidial maturation in overwintered fruiting bodies, spore release and survival, infection occurrence and severity, incubation and latency periods, onset of the lesions, production of pycnidia and infectious period. Finally, the model was evaluated to demonstrate its capability to represent the real system and in helping understanding black-rot epidemics

The design of fruit production systems considering the latest innovations is a real challenge. Before being tested in an experimental station or in real farm conditions, the global sustainability of these newly designed orchards needs to be evaluated. Based on the DEXiPM® model, the DEXiPM-pomefruit tool has been designed to make an ex ante assessment of the sustainability of innovative orchard systems. This model is based on a decision tree breaking the decisional problems of sustainability assessment into simpler units, referring to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainability. Based on two case studies, we present here the steps and thought process of our group to improve fruit production systems towards innovative and integrated production systems. DEXiPM-pomefruit tool has been tested on apple and pear production systems in the frame of a working group of European researchers. It proved to be sufficiently reliable to select the most promising innovations in a given context. DEXiPM-pomefruit was also used as a dashboard to determine strengths and weaknesses of the tested production systems and therefore to identify improvements

La moderna tecnologia e gli strumenti modellistici hanno permesso di realizzare e rendere operativo il servizio vite.net® che supporta il processo decisionale nell'azienda vitivinicola, rendendo disponibili in tempo reale, molteplici e dettagliate informazioni sulla situazione di ciascun vigneto. Risultato: un migliore uso delle risorse, siano esse naturali o input tecnici, l'attuazione di un percorso produttivo conforme ai principi della produzione integrata (compresa la difesa integrata ai sensi della Direttiva 2009/128/CE) e la possibilità di tracciare la logica alla base di ciascuna operazione effettuata nel corso della stagione.

L’implementazione della produzione integrata come riferimento base per tutto il comparto agricolo, così come prevista dalla Direttiva europea sull’uso sostenibile dei pesticidi (2009/128/CE) che entrerà in vigore in gennaio 2014, comporta un complesso processo decisionale per i viticoltori, i quali dovranno usufruire di informazioni dettagliate ed aggiornate sulla situazione in vigneto, sul rischio di malattie e parassiti, sulle caratteristiche dei prodotti fitosanitari per la difesa e sulle loro limitazioni. Il sistema di supporto alle decisioni (in inglese Decision Support Sistem, DSS) vite.net®, sviluppato da Horta srl (www.horta-srl.com) nell’ambito del progetto Europeo MoDeM (www.modem-ivm.eu), ha l’obiettivo di aiutare i viticoltori nella gestione del vigneto. In particolare, vite.net® è basato su (i) una rete agrometeorologica, (ii) un server repository in grado di archiviare i dati e le previsioni meteo, le informazioni agronomiche ed operative (come il registro dei trattamenti) relative ad ogni specifico vigneto, (iii) un complesso di modelli matematici che utilizzano i dati raccolti per generare le informazioni utili per la gestione tattica dei trattamenti chimici. Vite.net® fornisce i dati meteorologici registrati con passo orario e quelli previsionali a 3 giorni sul punto geografico di ogni stazione, simula lo sviluppo della pianta, la dinamica delle infezioni primarie e secondarie di peronospora e mal bianco, la dose ottimale di fungicidi da di-stribuire in funzione del rischio di infezione, della fase di sviluppo della pianta e della copertura residua dei precedenti trattamenti. La combinazione di tutte queste informazioni consente agli operatori di intervenire al momento più opportuno, con il prodotto più adatto ed evitando sprechi e sovradosaggi. Vite.net®, dopo una fase dimostrativa in vigneti convenzionali e biologici, è oggi utilizzato com-mercialmente su circa 2800 ha nelle più vocate zone vitivinicole italiane

Organic viticulture has grown considerably in the last decade; nonetheless, organic farming still has a huge potential for innovation and improved solutions specifically for the control of pests and pathogens. The research project VineMan.org (www.vineman-org.eu), funded by European Union within the CORE Organic II ERA-Net (project no. 249667), aims at improving disease control, one of the most difficult tasks in organic viticulture, through innovative cropping systems based on integration of: i) enhanced plant resistance, ii) vineyard management practices, iii) use of biological control agents, and iv) targeted applications based on disease models. During the first year, the above mentioned components of an integrated system have been developed and tested. Natural compounds were tested with a leaf disk assay and some of them were able to activate plant innate immunity. Early leaf removal, resulting in modified microclimate and changed bunch compactness and berry skin structure, was effective in reducing grey mould incidence on grapes. The entomopathogenic fungus Lecanicillium lecanii was used against the leafhopper Scaphoideus titanus, the vector of the flavescence dorée phytoplasma, and proved to be virulent to its second instar nymphs. Disease models for downy and powdery mildews were implemented in a web-based decision support system for organic viticulture, and tested in several Italian vineyards; the number of copper treatments against downy mildew was reduced by 36% on average. Finally, innovative strategies based on these results were designed and evaluated for overall sustainability trough an ex-ante assessment. These strategies are under test in different viticultural areas of Europe.

Grey mould caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea is a common disease on several kinds of ripening fruits, including grape. In addition to quantitative losses, if strongly affected grapes are processed into wine the enzymatic activity of the fungus can have a negative effect on the wine quality. Epidemics are usually initiated in Spring from inoculum produced on different overwintering structures. Leaf infections and, with higher impact, floral infections can generate fruit infections through different infection pathways, some of which include a degree of symptomless latency. Not only environmental conditions but also bunch architecture and berry structure can influence disease severity and incidence: grape varieties with compact clusters are more susceptible to the disease. Traditionally, the control of B. cinerea in the vineyard is performed using synthetic fungicides: up to three applications per season, depending on the production line, the weather conditions and the risk a grower wants to take. Within the FP7-KBBE project "Pesticide Use-and-risk Reduction in European farming systems with Integrated Pest Management" (PURE) two different strategies were tested to reduce the use of synthetic fungicides against B. cinerea in viticulture: i) create a microclimate less favourable to the pathogen, and ii) use of Biological Control Agents (BCAs). The first strategy was tested at the Julius Kühn-Institute in Siebeldingen (Germany) in the grape growing seasons 2011 and 2012. Manual defoliation of the berry zone was performed before and after flowering to modify the bunch structure of compact varieties and at veraison to enhance ventilation of the berry zone during ripening. Defoliation was compared with one, two and three synthetic fungicides applications. In 2011, with high disease pressure, the defoliation at flowering was as effective as three botryticide treatments, while in 2012 disease pressure was too low to check differences between defoliation and fungicides. In

The transition from conventional to integrated pest management and, more in general, to integrated production requires an increase of knowledge about the vineyard system and includes also an increase of limits and fulfilments. The vineyard manager needs to be more and more informed and has to take several decisions for the proper management of the vineyard. Therefore, a web-based Decision Support System (DSS) was developed for guiding decision about tactical management of the integrated vineyard. The DSS is provided by Horta srl, a spin-off company of the University of Piacenza (www.horta-srl.com), and is available for registered users via the internet in an interactive way. It is composed by: (i) a network of weather stations that send real time data, (ii) a server repository that stores the weather data; (iii) an user interface that makes it possible to readily input vineyard-specific information and obtain supports for informed decision- making; (iv) a set of mathematical models that use weather data and vineyard-specific information to predict the epidemiology of the main grapevine fungal diseases and the plant development. Output provides information on: (i) current weather conditions and 3-day forecasts; (ii) the growth stage of the plants; (iii) information and decision supports for primary and secondary infections of Plasmopara viticola and Erysiphe necator, causal agent of grapevine downy and powdery mildew, respectively. In particular, two weather-driven, mechanistic, dynamic models are used to provide the following information for P. viticola: dynamic of the oospore population; occurrence of the main events for primary infections (oospores germination, zoospores release and dispersal, infection establishment and appearance of downy mildew lesions); infection severity and epidemic pressure of primary infections; fitness of the sporulating lesions and availability of the secondary inoculum; relative severity and epidemic pressure of secondary infections. Si

The knowledge of fungicide mode of action (MoA) provides useful information in modern plant disease management, for the targeted use of the fungicides and implementation of anti-resistance strategies. Nowadays, the MoA is well-defined for a restricted number of fungicides. The study of fungicide MoA requires the integration of microscopy and bio-molecular tools, which may be more difficult to apply when the target organism is a biotrophic fungus. In this work, we used the SEM X-ray microanalysis in order to find differences in the chemical composition of Erysiphe necator chasmothecia sprayed with meptyldinocap. SEM X-ray is a scanning electron microscope able to detect chemical elements by their scattered X-ray emissions from the specimen. The principal component analysis performed on element energy emissions recorded on control and treated chasmothecia, revealed a relevant association between Ca, P and K. The function obtained by linear discriminant analysis made it possible to correctly classify treated and untreated samples considering Ca and Al energy emissions as the most significant variables. Noteworthy, two way ANOVA performed on the semi-quantitative Ca percentage estimation, showed that relative amount of Ca was higher in treated chasmothecia and increased significantly from 24 to 48 h after treatment. These results, together with the negative correlation observed between Ca and Al (r=-0,693) and S and P (r=-0,612), suggest a pH change in treated chasmothecia wall and the occurrence of an oxidative stress inside the chasmothecia which involves the Ca-dependent signal transduction pathway. These preliminary hypotheses need confirmation through further studies