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Tabora JAG, Ancog RC, Sanchez PAJ, Arboleda MDM, Lit IL Jr, Tiburan CL Jr. 2023. The last stand of a watershed forest in Southern Philippines: a case study of land cover and biodiversity. Biodiversitas 24: 1438-1449. Land Use Land Cover (LULC) maps using remote sensing technology became popular due to their contribution to spatial information useful for threat determination, biodiversity conservation, and landscape management. Our area of interest in this paper is a watershed in the southern Philippines with no published land cover maps and low biodiversity records. The watershed was a resettlement area originally covered by forest but slowly converted to an agricultural landscape. It was declared a watershed and forest reserve to conserve the primary forest. This paper shows the first spatiotemporal display of Land Use Land Cover change of the watershed to describe the potential threats to the landscape. The land cover change shows a 58% reduction in primary forest cover from 1973 to 2021. In contrast, the croplands have increased by 117% in the same time frame. The Land Use Dynamics Index hints at the landscape's socioeconomic and political situation in the past. In addition, the biodiversity surveys show multiple threatened organisms in the remaining forest. The biodiversity data distinguish between ecosystem types, while the threatened species mapping suggests potential wildlife refuges. The spatially explicit land cover and the location of the threatened species map suggest potential areas for conservation and management.

Groundwater plays a critical role to the total water resource potential of the Philippines especially in areas where there is low rainfall and where surface water is not readily available for agriculture and domestic use. However, during the past decades, groundwater depletion and pollution have been evident in many parts of the Philippines. This has led to excessive groundwater extraction that resulted to the lowering of the groundwater at an alarming level. This problem was further aggravated by rapid urbanization in most parts of the country that drastically affected the natural recharge of the land. Hence, this study is aimed to identify potential sites for artificial groundwater recharge in selected watersheds of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) that can enhance sustainable yield and promote conservation and storage of excess water. It utilized several factors in identifying the artificial groundwater recharge sites. These include infiltration and percolation qualities (slope, soil, geology, geomorphology, land cover, aquifer transmissivity, drainage density, and lineaments), water quality (electrical conductivity), and water storability (depth to groundwater). Each factor was reclassified based on their potential for artificial groundwater recharge and was ranked based on their influence on groundwater movement using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The suitability scales used in the reclassification were very poor, poor, moderate, good, and very good. Seven specialists from various fields of study including engineering, hydrology, geology, and forestry contributed their knowledge on groundwater recharge through pair-wise comparison. The results of the AHP showed that aquifer transmissivity is the most important factor and is given a weight of 15.9%. On the other hand, soil is given the least importance with a weight of 7.5%. These results were used to process the final potential map which integrated all the thematic maps using weighted overlay. The results of the potential map showed that majority (83.97%) of the site is moderately suitable for artificial groundwater recharge. The good, moderate, and poor suitable sites have 2180.03 ha, 12,274.39 ha, and 162.81 ha, respectively. Among the four watersheds in MMFR, Sipit Watershed has the largest cover of good suitable sites at 1288.68 ha or 59.11% of the entire study site. Meanwhile, the Tigbi Watershed has the least coverage of good sites with an approximate area of 54.46 ha only. In general, majority of these suitable sites for artificial groundwater recharge were found in sites that have high infiltration capacity and very acceptable water quality. It was also observed that the identified suitable sites were mainly located in cropland areas.

Climate Disaster Risk Assessment (CDRA) and Local Climate Change Action Plan (LCCAP) provide the scientific and legal platform for climate change adaptation and mitigation in the Philippines. This APN CAPaBLE project responds to the limited technical capacity of local government units (LGUs) to comply with this requirement through collaborative capacity building. Evaluation of CDRA and LCCAP led to a National Interagency Technical and Policy Forum to formulate action plans and fast-track preparations. The initial stage of the project demonstrated collaborative advantage as a condition for mobilizing human and financial resources was enabled. Collaborative inertia set in once the technical limitations of Aurora LGUs surfaced to complete the CDRA. This mirrored the results of the institutional capacity survey, administered to 87 disaster risk reduction and management Technical Working Group (TWG) members, highlighting the LGUs limitations in data availability and functional knowledge on climate change. Thus, a shift in capacity building strategy through focused mentoring and managing LGU expectations was done. The Aurora LGUs successfully completed its CDRA and LCCAP requirements through a lengthy and arduous process. It was acknowledged that CDRA preparation has a steep learning curve and competes heavily with other multiple functions and pressing demands from the LGUs. The national interagency forum resolution suggested that the CDRA be assigned to another government agency while LGUs shift capacity development initiatives to understanding and mainstreaming scientific assessment into local plans. The project experience highlights the difficult, yet promising, path to human security development and resilience building and underscored prudence and urgency of adaptation planning at the local level.

Differences In Serum Levels Of Lysophosphatidic Acid And Orexin/Hypocretin In Normal Weight And Obese Patients, Along The Continuum From Health People To Alzheimer's Disease

Chronic pain is associated with cognitive deficits. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) has been shown to ameliorate pain and pain-related cognitive impairments by restoring glutamatergic synapses functioning in the spared nerve injury (SNI) of the sciatic nerve in mice. SNI reduced mechanical and thermal threshold, spatial memory and LTP at the lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC)-dentate gyrus (DG) pathway. It decreased also postsynaptic density, volume and dendrite arborization of DG and increased the expression of metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 and 7 (mGluR1 and mGluR7), of the GluR1, GluR1s845 and GluR1s831 subunits of AMPA receptor and the levels of glutamate in the DG. The level of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) was instead increased in the LEC. Chronic treatment with PEA, starting from when neuropathic pain was fully developed, was able to reverse mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, memory deficit and LTP in SNI wild type, but not in PPAR? null, mice. PEA also restored the level of glutamate and the expression of phosphorylated GluR1 subunits, postsynaptic density and neurogenesis. Altogether, these results suggest that neuropathic pain negatively affects cognitive behavior and related LTP, glutamatergic synapse and synaptogenesis in the DG. In these conditions PEA treatment alleviates pain and cognitive impairment by restoring LTP and synaptic maladaptative changes in the LEC-DG pathway. These outcomes open new perspectives for the use of the N-acylethanolamines, such as PEA, for the treatment of neuropathic pain and its central behavioural sequelae.

Gold nanoparticles are increasingly being employed in innovative biological applications thanks to their advantages of material- and size-dependent physics and chemical interactions with the cellular systems. On the other hand, growing concern has emerged on the toxicity which would render gold-based nanoparticles harmful to cell cultures, animals, and humans. Emerging attention is focused on the interaction of gold nanoparticles with nervous system, especially regarding the ability to overcome the blood-brain barrier (BBB) which represents the major impediment to the delivery of therapeutics into the brain. We synthesized highly stable 2-mercapto-1-methylimidazole-stabilized gold-nanoparticles (AuNPs)-mmi to investigate their entry, accumulation, and toxicity in vitro (SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells) and in vivo (brain of C57BL/6 mice) through optical and electron microscopy. After incubation in the cell culture medium at the lowest dose of 0.1 mg/mL the (AuNPs)-mmi nanoparticles were found compacted and recruited into endosome/lysosomes (1 h) before their fusion (2 h) and the onset of neuronal death by apoptosis (4 h) as proved by terminal-transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay and caspase-3 immunoreactivity. The ability of (AuNPs)-mmi to cross the BBB was assessed by injection in the caudal vein of C57BL/6 mice. Among different brain regions, the nanoparticles were found in the CaudatoPutamen area, mainly in the striatal neurons 4 h after injection. These neurons showed the typical hallmarks of apoptosis. Our findings provide, for the first time, the dynamic of 2-mercapto-1-methylimidazole nanogold uptake. The molecular mechanism which underlies the nanogold-driven apoptotic event is analyzed and discussed in order to take into account when designing nanomaterials to interface with biological structures. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Watersheds and other related ecosystems have played a significant role in providing various functions that are vital to society. However, due to the increasing problems on climate change, these watersheds are now subjected to several environmental hazards posing many concerns that affect its management and sustainability. Thus, it is imperative to determine the vulnerable regions in these landscapes to identify priority areas that may require immediate intervention. This paper aims to determine the vulnerability of watersheds using a geospatial-based environmental vulnerability index called the Geospatial-based Regional Environmental Vulnerability Index for Ecosystems and Watersheds (GeoREVIEW). This approach is, then, utilized to assess the vulnerability of La Mesa Watershed (LMW), a vital carbon sink and an important source of domestic water supply in Metro Manila. Based on the assessment, LMW received an overall vulnerability point (OVP) of 62.52 that classifies it as’at risk’ level. A vulnerability map ranging from 2.86 to 3.52 was also generated from the process. It was found that around 69.7% of the watershed have vulnerability scales of >3.0. In addition, priority areas were determined using an evaluation matrix and results showed that around 8.4% (193.4 ha) of LMW have high to very high priority levels. All these information are very indispensable and can be used to address management issues, such as resource prioritization and optimization. In addition, these can be utilized to sustainably manage the watershed particularly on the provision of quality water for domestic use of several cities in the national capital region as well as its neighbouring provinces.

The purinergic system is highly involved in the regulation of microglial physiological processes. In addition to the accepted roles for the P2X4,7 and P2Y12 receptors activated by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate, respectively, recent evidence suggests a role for the adenosine A2A receptor in microglial cytoskeletal rearrangements. However, the expression and function of adenosine A1 receptor (A1AR) in microglia is still unclear. Several reports have demonstrated possible expression of A1AR in microglia, but a new study has refuted such evidence. In this study, we investigated the presence and function of A1AR in microglia using biomolecular techniques, live microscopy, live calcium imaging, and in vivo electrophysiological approaches. The aim of this study was to clarify the expression of A1AR in microglia and to highlight its possible roles. We found that microglia express A1AR and that it is highly upregulated upon ATP treatment. Moreover, we observed that selective stimulation of A1AR inhibits the morphological activation of microglia, possibly by suppressing the Ca2+ influx induced by ATP treatment. Finally, we recorded the spontaneous and evoked activity of spinal nociceptive-specific neuron before and after application of resting or ATP-treated microglia, with or without preincubation with a selective A1AR agonist. We found that the microglial cells, pretreated with the A1AR agonist, exhibit lower capability to facilitate the nociceptive neurons, as compared with the cells treated with ATP alone. The purinergic system is highly involved in the regulation of microglial physiological processes. In addition to the accepted roles for the P2X4,7 and P2Y12 receptors activated by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate, respectively, recent evidence suggests a role for the adenosine A2A receptor in microglial cytoskeletal rearrangements. However, the expression and function of adenosine A1 receptor (A1AR) in microglia is still unclear. Several reports have demonstrated possible expression of A1AR in microglia, but a new study has refuted such evidence. In this study, we investigated the presence and function of A1AR in microglia using biomolecular techniques, live microscopy, live calcium imaging, and in vivo electrophysiological approaches. The aim of this study was to clarify the expression of A1AR in microglia and to highlight its possible roles. We found that microglia express A1AR and that it is highly upregulated upon ATP treatment. Moreover, we observed that selective stimulation of A1AR inhibits the morphological activation of microglia, possibly by suppressing the Ca2+ influx induced by ATP treatment. Finally, we recorded the spontaneous and evoked activity of spinal nociceptive-specific neuron before and after application of resting or ATP-treated microglia, with or without preincubation with a selective A1AR agonist. We found that the microglial cells, pretreated with the A1AR agonist, exhibit lower capability to facilitate the nociceptive neurons, as compared with the cells treated with ATP alone. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Invasive species represent the second most remarkable cause of extinction worldwide after habitat destruction (IUCN, 2011). Skyflower (Thunbergia grandiflora Roxb.) that is slowly invading Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) was subjected to varying light intensities. Morpho-ecological characters were evaluated using Analysis of Variance for Randomized Complete Block Design. Bonferonni’s method at 5% level of significance was used for mean comparison. Plant height, number of leaves and nodes were higher in 0% (open condition) and 50% (partial shade) compared to those grown in 70% (complete shade). There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in stem thickness, biomass, and chlorophyll content in all treatments. Leaf area was smallest in plants grown in the open condition. There was significant difference between the two locations (greenhouse and field) for the number of nodes, number of leaves, and stem thickness (P

Following the international protocol for establishment of permanent plots, a two-hectare permanent biodiversity monitoring area (PBMA) was established inside Makiling Forest Reserve. Results of the intensive 100% inventory revealed that the PBMA holds tremendous tree diversity. A total of 155 tree species were identified. Of these, 148 are indigenous to the Philippines with 47 endemics (30% endemism). The most abundant native species in the PBMA is Magabuyo (Celtis luzonica) with 2,287 individuals, followed by Balobo (Diplodiscus paniculatus) , Tinaang pantai (Drypetes maquilingensis) , and Apanang (Mallotus cumingii) . The average diameter for all trees inside the plot is 14.28 cm. More than 90% of the individual trees fall under the category poles and saplings while large trees account to only 0.6%. Twenty-nine (29) species are listed under either the Philippine Red List (Fernando et al. 2008) or the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2015-4). Noteworthy among the list are the six critically endangered (CR) premium timber species including Makaasim (Syzygium nitidum) , Kamagong (Diospyros discolor) , Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) , Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) , Guijo (Shorea guiso) , and White lauan (Shorea contorta) . The geodatabase that includes an interactive map developed in this study is of critical importance for future research activities in the area. Keywords: Permanent biodiversity monitoring area, Makiling Forest Reserve, endemics, threatened species, geodatabase

The condition of a watershed is vital to its provision of goods and services. Unfortunately, in the Philippines, a lot of watersheds are degraded due to various causes like deforestation and mining. Restoration of these areas has been initiated through reforestation, with limited information generated on the impact of such practice to the overall tree diversity in the area. As such, a study was conducted at La Mesa Watershed (LMW), situated near an urban area, to determine the impact of reforestation on tree diversity. Data were generated through a field inventory of trees following a stratified cluster sampling technique where the area was subdivided into three elevation classes ( 150 masl) and a corresponding number of plots were established in each classes. Results showed a relatively high diversity of native trees with 70 species of the total 92. Fourteen species are found to be endemic to the country while 7 species are listed in either the IUCN or Philippine Red List.. The current vegetation in LMW shows a rare success story of reforestation efforts in the country implemented through private-public partnerships.  Keywords: La Mesa Watershed, restoration, plant diversity, endemism, environmental services

Acute or chronic alterations in energy status alter the balance between excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission and associated synaptic plasticity to allow for the adaptation of energy metabolism to new homeostatic requirements. The impact of such changes on endocannabinoid and cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1)-mediated modulation of synaptic transmission and strength is not known, despite the fact that this signaling system is an important target for the development of new drugs against obesity. We investigated whether CB1-expressing excitatory vs. inhibitory inputs to orexin-A–containing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus are altered in obesity and how this modifies endocannabinoid control of these neurons. In lean mice, these inputs are mostly excitatory. By confocal and ultrastructural microscopic analyses, we observed that in leptin-knockout (ob/ob) obese mice, and in mice with diet-induced obesity, orexinergic neurons receive predominantly inhibitory CB1-expressing inputs and overexpress the biosynthetic enzyme for the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol, which retrogradely inhibits synaptic transmission at CB1-expressing axon terminals. Patch-clamp recordings also showed increased CB1-sensitive inhibitory innervation of orexinergic neurons in ob/ob mice. These alterations are reversed by leptin administration, partly through activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway in neuropeptide-Y-ergic neurons of the arcuate nucleus, and are accompanied by CB1-mediated enhancement of orexinergic innervation of target brain areas. We propose that enhanced inhibitory control of orexin-A neurons, and their CB1-mediated disinhibition, are a consequence of leptin signaling impairment in the arcuate nucleus. We also provide initial evidence of the participation of this phenomenon in hyperphagia and hormonal dysregulation in obesity.

Drugs delivery into the brain across the blood brain barrier has always remained a challenging task for neuroscientists. Nanotechnology is now providing new prospective in the treatment of neurological cancer, neurovascular disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. This study aims to explore whether gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are able to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) and more importantly whether they have cytotoxic effects after in vivo and in vitro uptake. We selected AuNPs for their stability, size controlled synthesis, relatively easy surface modification with amine and thiol groups and capability to be studied at ultrastructural level with electron microscopy. Alkanethiol pyrazol was used to stabilize AuNPs. Thiol ligands strongly bind gold molecules due to soft character of both Au and S. Nanoparticles with a mean particle size < 2 nm were obtained. These nanoparticles had an absorption spectrum at 350 nm and showed a broad emission ranging from 400 to 600 nm depending on their quantum size since their emission shift from green to red when they form clusters of ~200 nm of diameter. In order to explore in vivo uptake of gold nanoparticles, 0.2 ml of saline suspension containing AuNPs (1x105) or physiological solution (as control) were injected into the carotid artery respectively of n=3 anesthetized mice. After 90 min from administration, the animals were sacrificed and the hindbrain slices were studied with an epifluorescence microscope. A strong particleassociated florescence was observed in the Caudato Putamen region (CPu) for AuNPs treated and not for untreated control. The fluorescence shows a more evenly spread distribution in the neuronal but not in glial cells, as shown by GFAP, Iba1 and NeuN immunoistochemistry. In order to explore in vitro cellular uptake the human neuroblastoma cells SH-SY5Y were incubated with 1 ml of saline suspension containing AuNPs (1x105) at 20 min, 1, 2 and 4 hrs. AuNPs internalization was observed through Leica microscope workstation B6000 equipped for in vivo time lapse analysis and, furthermore, confirmed by transmission electron microscopy observations. The effect of AuNPs was investigated both in vivo and in vitro using caspase-3 immunoreactivity and TUNEL test which showed apoptosis. In vivo many CPu neurons loaded with AuNPs were both caspase- 3 and TUNEL labelled as in vitro neuroblastoma cells whereas glial cells were AuNPs unloaded and caspase-3 or TUNEL negatives. Our data suggest that AuNPs cross the BBB and have particular imaging properties since they cluster into the cells changing the emission spectrum from green to red. Noteworthy AuNPs are cytotoxic so they are an attractive platform for neurological diseases if specifically addressed toward target cells.

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an anti-inflammatory mediator that enhances the activation by anandamide (AEA) of cannabinoid receptors and transient receptor potential vanilloid type-1 (TRPV1) channels, and directly activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha). In mice, 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced contact allergic dermatitis (CAD) in inflamed ears is partly mediated by the chemokine Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-2 (MCP-2) and accompanied by elevation of AEA levels. No datum is available on PEA regulation and role in CAD.We examined whether PEA is produced during DNFB-induced CAD, and if it has any direct protective action in keratinocytes in vitro.Eight- to ten-week-old female C57BL/6J wild-type and CB(1)/CB(2) double knock-out mice were used to measure PEA levels and the expression of TRPV1, PPAR-alpha receptors and enzymes responsible for PEA biosynthesis and degradation. Human keratinocytes (HaCaT) cells were stimulated with polyinosinic polycytidylic acid [poly-(I:C)], and the expression and release of MCP-2 were measured in the presence of PEA and antagonists of its proposed receptors.2,4-Dinitrofluorobenzene increased ear skin PEA levels and up-regulated TRPV1, PPAR-alpha and a PEA-biosynthesizing enzyme in ear keratinocytes. In HaCaT cells, stimulation with poly-(I:C) elevated the levels of both PEA and AEA, and exogenous PEA (10 microM) inhibited poly-(I:C)-induced expression and release of MCP-2 in a way reversed by antagonism at TRPV1, but not PPAR-alpha. PEA (5-10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) also inhibited DNFB-induced ear inflammation in mice in vivo, in a way attenuated by TRPV1 antagonism.We suggest that PEA is an endogenous protective agent against DNFB-induced keratinocyte inflammation and could be considered for therapeutic use against CAD.

Long-term depression (LTD) in the rodent superior colliculus (SC) is regarded as a model of synaptic refinement because it can be induced during development but not in adults. We investigated the role of transient receptor potential vanilloid type-1 (TRPV1) channels in this type of synaptic plasticity. Experiments were carried out in pigmented mice aged between postnatal day 8 (P8) and 42 (P42) and in adult mice. Retinal axons to the SC were labelled by injection of cholera toxin-beta (CTbeta) into the eye. Immunohistochemical staining for CTbeta, TRPV1 and markers of glutamatergic and GABAergic cells and fibres (VGLUT1 and VGAT or GAD65, respectively) was performed by using multiple immunofluorescence. This showed that both glutamatergic retinal afferents to, and some GABAergic neurones in, the superficial SC are TRPV1 positive in juvenile but not adult mice. Field potential recordings were made from the superficial grey layer in parasagittal SC slices, and LTD (76 +/- 8% of control responses) was induced with a 50 Hz, 20 s tetanus. Activation of TRPV1 with resiniferatoxin also reduced field potential amplitude to 84 +/- 8% of control values. Blockade of TRPV1 with the selective antagonist 5'-iodo-resiniferatoxin prevented the induction of LTD (98 +/- 4% of control values), but did not cause its reversal if LTD was already established. N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine-specific phospholipase D and 12-lipoxygenase, two proposed endovanilloid biosynthesizing enzymes, were co-expressed with TRPV1 in the SC at P14 and P28. These results suggest that TRPV1 modulates retinocollicular responses in the developing SC and is activated during tetanic stimulation by endovanilloid ligands to participate in the induction of LTD.