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Homo naledi displays a combination of features across the skeleton not found in any other hominin taxon, which has hindered attempts to determine its placement within the hominin clade. Using geometric morphometrics, we assess the morphology of the mandibular premolars of the species at the enamel-dentine junction (EDJ). Comparing with specimens of Paranthropus, Australopithecus and Homo (n = 97), we find that the H. naledi premolars from the Dinaledi chamber consistently display a suite of traits (e.g., tall crown, well-developed P3 and P4 metaconid, strongly developed P3 mesial marginal ridge, and a P3 > P4 size relationship) that distinguish them from known hominin groups. Premolars from a second locality, the Lesedi Chamber, are consistent with this morphology. We also find that two specimens from South Africa, SK 96 (usually attributed to Paranthropus) and Stw 80 (Homo sp.), show similarities to the species, and we discuss a potential evolutionary link between H. naledi and hominins from Sterkfontein and Swartkrans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cradle of HumankindWorld Heritage Site (CoHWHS), Gauteng Province, South Africa, preserves a remarkable palaeontological and archaeological record. Since the 1950s, stone tool assemblages have been excavated from well-known cave sites in this region, offering valuable insight into the behavioural and cognitive capabilities of early human ancestors. Modern research perspectives draw on a wealth of information to understand taphonomic, site formation, and technological aspects of these assemblages, and to interpret their significance in human evolution. At a point when high-resolution spatial data can be captured at sites in the Cradle region, reviewing the history of how current interpretive models of archaeological assemblages have developed is important for forging future directions in research. This history highlights the evolution of classification and analytical trends that have led to current multidisciplinary approaches to archaeology in southern Africa. It also illuminates the fact there has been a narrow focus on palaeoanthropological cave systems, with less information derived from archaeological assemblages found on the landscape above. As such, cave sites in the Cradle have provided perspectives on the Earlier Stone Age, while the Middle and Later Stone Ages have unfortunately been under-represented. Future directions in research should focus on increasing chronological, environmental and spatial resolution of the archaeological record in this region, which requires the collation of a wide array of data from cave and open-air sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sterkfontein Caves site is one of the richest early hominin localities in Africa. In addition to significant fossil assemblages from Members 2 and 4 of the Sterkfontein Formation, recent excavations have revealed hominin-bearing sedimentary deposits in the lesser-known Milner Hall. We describe two hominin cranial fragments excavated from the Milner Hall in 2015 and present the results of a highresolution microtomographic-based approach to diagnosing the anatomical and taxonomical origin of these specimens. Based on external morphology, StW 671 and StW 672 are identified as frontal and occipital fragments, respectively. Our non-invasive bi-dimensional quantitative investigation of the two cranial fragments reveals a mean cranial thickness of 8.8 mm for StW 671 and of 5.6 mm for StW 672, and a contribution of the diploic layer to the cumulative cranial thickness that is less than 50%. While the mean cranial thickness of StW 671 falls within the range for Homo, the relative proportion of the diploë in both StW 671 and StW 672 is lower than that found in Australopithecus (>60%) and extant humans (>50%). Accordingly, in terms of both cranial thickness and inner structural organisation, the Milner Hall hominins combine derived and unique traits, consistent with the condition of other postcranial and dental material already described from the deposit. Moreover, our study opens interesting perspectives in terms of analysis of isolated cranial fragments, which are abundant in the hominin fossil record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sterkfontein Caves site is one of the richest early hominin fossil localities in Africa. More specifically, the fossiliferous deposits within the lower-lying Jacovec Cavern have yielded valuable hominin remains; prominent among them is the Australopithecus partial cranium StW 578. Due to the fragmentary nature of the braincase, the specimen has not yet been formally assigned to a species. In this context, we employ microtomography to quantify cranial thickness and composition of StW 578 in order to assess its taxonomic affinity. As comparative material, we investigate 10 South African hominin cranial specimens from Sterkfontein (StW 505, Sts 5, Sts 25, Sts 71), Swartkrans (SK 46, SK 48, SK 49) and Makapansgat (MLD 1, MLD 10, MLD 37/38), attributed to either Australopithecus or Paranthropus , as well as 10 extant human and 10 extant chimpanzee crania. Thickness variation in and structural arrangement of the inner and outer cortical tables and the diploë are automatically assessed at regular intervals along one parasagittal and one coronal section. Additionally, topographic cranial vault thickness distribution is visualized using color maps. Comparisons highlight an absolutely and relatively thickened condition of the StW 578 cranial vault versus those of other South African Plio-Pleistocene hominins. Moreover, in StW 578, as well as in the Australopithecus specimens Sts 5 and Sts 71 from Sterkfontein, the diploic layer contributes substantially to cumulative vault thickness (i.e., >60%). Within the comparative sample investigated here, StW 505 and Sts 71 from Sterkfontein Member 4, both attributed to Australopithecus , most closely resemble StW 578 in terms of cranial vault thickness values, tissue proportions, and two- and three-dimensional distributions. Including additional Plio-Pleistocene Australopithecus and Paranthropus crania from South and East Africa in future studies would further help establish morphological variability in these hominin taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sterkfontein Caves UNESCO World Heritage site represents one of South Africa’s most valuable cultural heritage resources and is one of the world’s most prolific palaeoanthropological sites with its fossiliferous deposits spanning the last 3.5 million years. One of the most famous fossil-bearing deposits at Sterkfontein is the 2.5 million-year-old Member 4. This is the world’s richest Australopithecus-bearing deposit and has yielded iconic fossils like StS 5 - Mrs Ples, StW 53, two partial skeletons, and two species of Australopithecus. After 80 years of research, Member 4 continues to provide crucial evidence for human origins research. Over the last 35 years, since excavation of the Member 4 started exposing the walls of the deposit, their deterioration has been accelerating. The implications of this deterioration and impending collapse are severe, not only from a palaeoanthropological perspective but also a heritage management point of view. This article focuses on our efforts to conserve the deteriorating areas of the Member 4 excavation site. The project required the development of a comprehensive set of strategies that had to be adapted to the specific requirements of the national and local heritage management agencies and remain sensitive to ongoing research programmes. The strategy developed included: multiscale integrative documentation of the exposed deposits; comprehensive, independent but cohesive stabilization of the different components of the deposit while maintaining visibility for ongoing and future research; and installation of stabilization infrastructure that could be adapted to the long-term conservation excavation plan while maintaining deposit integrity and site safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: The Sterkfontein Caves, the richest Australopithecus‐bearing site in the world, occupies a crucial position in the history of South African scientific inquiry and has been pivotal to the development of the field of paleoanthropology. The site is physically and culturally embedded in the foundations of Johannesburg and is recognized as being one of the world's most important cultural heritage resources. The year 2016 was the eightieth anniversary of the discovery of the first adult Australopithecus by Robert Broom at Sterkfontein in 1936, a find that inspired three generations of paleoanthropological research throughout South Africa's Cradle of Humankind. Since this discovery, through fortune or dedicated research efforts, Sterkfontein has provided some of the most crucial clues to the complexities of our evolutionary past. In an auspicious year, 150 years since Robert Broom's birth, eighty years since Broom's discovery, and fifty years since Tobias's inauguration of a new Sterkfontein research program, this article presents a brief review of the history of research at Sterkfontein and its role in the development of the field of paleoanthropology. In light of this juncture, this article contributes two consolidated resources: a literature archive and a consolidated record of excavation‐diary entries since 1967. [Sterkfontein, Australopithecus, Cradle of Humankind, paleoanthropology, Robert Broom] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including an exploration of issues on the repatriation of the skeletal remains of several Beothuk individuals, a history of paleoanthropological research on the Sterkfontein Caves, and the relationship between community foodways and colonial contact.

Carbon isotope analyses of tooth enamel have been widely employed by paleoecologists to understand past habitats. Most such studies use large- to medium-bodied mammals and exclude small taxa. However, analysis of fossil small mammals holds promise for resolving questions about past environments because these animals are often present in the fossil record (especially in South African cave sites), are diverse in dietary and habitat preference, yet have limited lifespans and home range sizes. Thus, the carbon isotope compositions of small mammal communities and/or species might reflect the composition of vegetation in local environments at fine scales. In this study, we assessed the degree to which carbon isotope compositions of small mammal tooth enamel record spatial changes in habitat in a southern African savanna environment. Modern small mammal specimens were collected from the pellet accumulations of three barn owl ( Tyto alba africanus ) roosts located within microhabitats varying from open grassland to mixed woodland. We examined rodent carbon isotope compositions within taxa, between taxa, and between tooth types in an effort to characterize variation within this group. We also compared rodent community δ 13 C enamel composition between microhabitat types to evaluate how well small mammal isotope data reflect vegetation composition local to the roosts. Our analyses suggest that the relationship between small mammal community carbon isotopic means and vegetation composition is complex, but that with appropriate taxonomic control and consideration of relative abundance, small mammals have potential as a proxy for reconstructing past habitats. To complement this modern study, we performed isotopic analysis of the enamel of small mammals from three hominin-bearing sites in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, South Africa. Our results suggest a greater contribution of C4 resources to the diets of small mammals and likely more C4 grass in the past than occurs today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence of a mine-water impact on groundwater in the karst aquifer downstream of the actively draining West Rand Goldfield can be traced back to the early 1980s. This is attributed to the dewatering of 'fissure water' encountered during mining and its discharge into the Bloubank Spruit catchment. Rewatering of the subsurface void following the cessation of mining in the late 1990s culminated in mine-water issuing from various point sources (shafts and boreholes) in 2002. The past 6 hydrological years have periodically produced the greatest volume and worst quality of mine-water discharge, causing widespread concern for the receiving aquatic environment. In this regard, the proximal Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site attracts a much sharper focus than the distal, regionally important Hartbeespoort Dam. Objectivity requires that an assessment of the mine-water impact on the receiving surface water resources must recognise both the subregional and regional scales. The evaluation presented in this communication examines the temporal mine-water impact at both scales and interprets the results in terms of the influence exerted by the natural hydrosystem in mitigating adverse impacts on the water resources environment. An analysis of the respective contributions of each of the major drainages to the quantity and quality of water impounded in Hartbeespoort Dam indicates that the median total dissolved solids (TDS) load delivered by the Bloubank Spruit system amounted to ~26 kt/a in the past 6 hydrological years. This is ~12% of the regional median total of ~224 kt/a entering the impoundment in the same period. By comparison, the preceding long-term record dating back 30 years to 1979 reflects a 66% lower median annual contribution of 8.6 kt, representing ~10% of a regional median total of ~89 kt/a. Proportionally, therefore, the recent 6-year period of high volume and poor-quality discharge from the Bloubank Spruit catchment represents only a marginally greater TDS load contribution to Hartbeespoort Dam than that which characterises the previous 30 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A water level rise of almost 3 m in the space of two years in the Sterkfontein Cave system since late-2009 necessitated the re-routing of the tourist path through the cave to successively higher elevations on three occasions. It also raised concern for a possible association with copious acidic and sulphate-rich mine water drainage from the West Rand Goldfield (a.k.a. Western Basin) starting in early-2010, and the related threat to the UNESCO-inscribed fossil site. Although these circumstances have had little impact on the tourist value of the site, a prognosis of the impact on cave water level and quality is indicated by virtue of its karst setting and palaeontological significance. Historical and recent potentiometric data, together with ancillary hydrogeological and hydrochemical information acquired in the course of a water resources monitoring programme for the broader Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, provides new insight into the hydrogeology of the cave system. An improved understanding of the hydrophysical and hydrochemical response of the cave water system sheds light on the location of this system within the water resources environment. It is proposed that the present-day maximum cave water level is constrained to an elevation of ~1440 m above mean sea level. The recent electrical conductivity of 78 mS/m for cave water is 32% greater than the 59 mS/m recorded in mid-2010 and earlier. Similarly, the recent sulphate concentration of 161 mg/L is 178% greater than the 58 mg/L recorded before 2010. Compared to coeval values for ambient karst groundwater represented by the normative Zwartkrans Spring water, the magnitude of the increases in the springwater are similar, viz. 48% (from 84 to 124 mS/m) in salinity and 166% (from 154 to 409 mg/L) in sulphate. Although a distinct mine water impact is evident in both instances, the values indicate a muted impact on the cave water chemistry compared to the springwater. These and other documented observations better inform the threat from various poorer quality water sources to the fossil site in particular, and to the broader karst water resource in general. This contextualises concern for the hydroenvironmental future of Sterkfontein Cave and other nearby fossil sites such as Swartkrans, Rising Star and Bolt's Farm. The dynamic response of the water resources environment to a variety of hydrological and hydrogeological drivers reinforces the need for monitoring vigilance across a range of disciplines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New discoveries and dating of fossil remains from the Rising Star cave system, Cradle of Humankind, South Africa, have strong implications for our understanding of Pleistocene human evolution in Africa. Direct dating of Homo naledi fossils from the Dinaledi Chamber (Berger et al., 2015) shows that they were deposited between about 236 ka and 335 ka (Dirks et al., 2017), placing H. naledi in the later Middle Pleistocene. Hawks and colleagues (Hawks et al., 2017) report the discovery of a second chamber within the Rising Star system (Dirks et al., 2015) that contains H. naledi remains. Previously, only large-brained modern humans or their close relatives had been demonstrated to exist at this late time in Africa, but the fossil evidence for any hominins in subequatorial Africa was very sparse. It is now evident that a diversity of hominin lineages existed in this region, with some divergent lineages contributing DNA to living humans and at least H. naledi representing a survivor from the earliest stages of diversification within Homo. The existence of a diverse array of hominins in subequatorial comports with our present knowledge of diversity across other savanna-adapted species, as well as with palaeoclimate and paleoenvironmental data. H. naledi casts the fossil and archaeological records into a new light, as we cannot exclude that this lineage was responsible for the production of Acheulean or Middle Stone Age tool industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first application of high-resolution micro computed tomography in an analysis of both the internal and external morphology of the lumbar region of StW 431 - a hominin skeleton recovered from Member 4 infill of the Sterkfontein Caves (South Africa) in 1987. The lumbar vertebrae of the individual present a number of proliferative and erosive bony processes, which were investigated in this study. Investigations suggest a complex history of taphonomic alteration to pre-existing spinal degenerative joint disease (SDJD) as well as post-mortem modification by an unknown insect. This study is in agreement with previous pathological diagnoses of SDJD which affected StW 431 and is the first time insect traces on this hominin are described. The results of this analysis attest to the complex series of post-mortem processes affecting the Sterkfontein site and its fossil assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public-private partnerships (PPP) are important vehicles for infrastructure development in the global South and increasingly applied in tourism. South Africa has extensively adopted the PPP approach for infrastructure development across several different sectors from transport, water and sanitation services, social development, office accommodation, health care and correctional services; increasingly the PPP approach is being applied to the tourism sector. This paper analyses the utilisation of the PPP approach to infrastructure development for tourism in South Africa using the case of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site. In this example the PPP model has foundered and failed to deliver anticipated outcomes in terms of project sustainability and inclusive growth through community benefits. At the heart of the disappointments of this PPP is the issue of demand risk and inadequate visitor flows to the tourism destination. The critical need for thorough and rigorous feasibility studies is widely acknowledged in the South African experience. Yet in this tourism infrastructure project the original feasibility studies were faulty and wildly over-optimistic regarding visitor demand projections such that revenue streams to the private partner fell below sustainability thresholds. A turnaround strategy currently is being implemented to boost tourism growth and sustainability of the Cradle of Humankind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concentrations of cosmogenic 10Be, measured in quartz from chert and river sediment around the Cradle of Humankind (CoH), are used to determine basin-averaged erosion rates and estimate incision rates for local river valleys. This study focusses on the catchment area that hosts Malapa cave with Australopithecus sediba, in order to compare regional versus localized erosion rates, and better constrain the timing of cave formation and fossil entrapment. Basin-averaged erosion rates for six sub-catchments draining the CoH show a narrow range (3.00 ± 0.28 to 4.15 ± 0.37 m/Mega-annum [Ma]; ±1σ) regardless of catchment size or underlying geology; e.g. the sub-catchment with Malapa Cave (3 km²) underlain by dolomite erodes at the same rate (3.30 ± 0.30 m/Ma) as the upper Skeerpoort River catchment (87 km²) underlain by shale, chert and conglomerate (3.23 ± 0.30 m/Ma). Likewise, the Skeerpoort River catchment (147 km²) draining the northern CoH erodes at a rate (3.00 ± 0.28 m/Ma) similar to the Bloubank-Crocodile River catchment (627 km²) that drains the southern CoH (at 3.62 ± 0.33 to 4.15 ± 0.37 m/Ma). Dolomite- and siliciclastic-dominated catchments erode at similar rates, consistent with physical weathering as the rate controlling process, and a relatively dry climate in more recent times. Erosion resistant chert dykes along the Grootvleispruit River below Malapa yield an incision rate of ∼8 m/Ma at steady-state erosion rates for chert of 0.86 ± 0.54 m/Ma. Results provide better palaeo-depth estimates for Malapa Cave of 7-16 m at the time of deposition of A. sediba. Low basin-averaged erosion rates and concave river profiles indicate that the landscape across the CoH is old, and eroding slowly; i.e. the physical character of the landscape changed little in the last 3-4 Ma, and dolomite was exposed on surface probably well into the Miocene. The apparent absence of early Pliocene- or Miocene-aged cave deposits and fossils in the CoH suggests that caves only started forming from 4 Ma onwards. Therefore, whilst the landscape in the CoH is old, cavities are a relatively young phenomenon, thus controlling the maximum age of fossils that can potentially be preserved in caves in the CoH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The Plio-Pleistocene karstic sedimentary deposits of Sterkfontein Cave, South Africa, yielded numerous fossil primate specimens embedded in blocks of indurated breccia, including the partial cercopithecoid cranium labelled STS 1039. Because the surrounding matrix masks most of its morphology, the specimen remains taxonomically undetermined. While the use of X-ray microtomography did not allow extracting any structural information about the specimen, we experimented a new investigative technique based on neutron microtomography. Using this innovative approach, we successfully virtually extracted, reconstructed in 3D and quantitatively assessed the preserved dentognathic structural morphology of STS 1039, including details of its postcanine maxillary dentition. Following comparative analyses with a number of Plio-Pleistocene and extant cercopithecoid taxa, we tentatively propose a taxonomic attribution to the taxon Cercopithecoides williamsi. Our experience highlights the remarkable potential of this novel imaging method to extract diagnostic information and to identify the fossil remains embedded in hard breccia from the South African hominin-bearing cave sites. Am J Phys Anthropol 159:737-745, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, west of Johannesburg, was designated in 1999 because of its importance as a locality where numerous hominid fossils have been discovered since the 1930s. In this article, responses to questions from a survey of more than 800 adult visitors to the Cradle of Humankind visitor centres are analysed, covering their understanding of the concept of the 'cradle' and their views on human evolution. Findings indicated that 63% of the respondents conceptualised the cradle as the origin or birthplace of humankind, and a similar proportion thought that nowhere else could be called the Cradle of Humankind (77% of people of South African nationality thought this). Nearly 60% of respondents accepted that humans evolved from an ape-like ancestor, while 25% disagreed. South Africans were less likely to accept human evolution than their international counterparts. The great majority of participants who accepted human evolution based their agreement on various forms of evidence and their knowledge of evolution. A religious foundation was used for their rationale by 60% of those who rejected evolution, with 33% citing evidence for their rejection. The implications of the findings are discussed in the light of public awareness and human origins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The question of how many Australopithecus species lived at Sterkfontein Member 4 and Makapansgat continues to be controversial inasmuch as the fossils are poorly preserved, the stratigraphy is difficult to interpret, and the cranial, dental, and postcranial remains are mostly not associated. To proceed we applied the most intensive modern methods of 3D geometric morphometrics to dental form, specifically the shapes of the upper second molars (M 2 s) in a sample combining 13 Australopithecus , 11 Paranthropus , and 23 Homo . We analyzed outer and inner crown surfaces, as well as crown and cervical outlines both separately and together, using a total of 16 landmarks, 51 curve semilandmarks, and 48 pseudolandmarks over the four structures. Outer and inner enamel surfaces are highly correlated in this dataset, while crown outline is the least informative of the four structures. Homo was easily distinguished from both Australopithecus and Paranthropus by these methods, likewise Homo sapiens from Homo neanderthalensis . There were, however, no stable classes within the Australopithecus sample or between Australopithecus and Paranthropus . Instead, there was a gradient along which Australopithecus prometheus and Australopithecus africanus lie toward the extremes, with Paranthropus overlapping both. If there are indeed different species at this site, then either their M 2 morphologies are uninformative or else the present sample is too small to make an accurate assessment. Our findings suggest that the variability of the Australopithecus specimens will be difficult to interpret authoritatively, independent of the method used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cave infills at Sterkfontein contain one of the richest assemblages of Australopithecus fossils in the world, including the nearly complete skeleton StW 573 ('Little Foot') in its lower section, as well as early stone tools in higher sections. However, the chronology of the site remains controversial owing to the complex history of cave infilling. Much of the existing chronology based on uranium-lead dating and palaeomagnetic stratigraphy has recently been called into question by the recognition that dated flowstones fill cavities formed within previously cemented breccias and therefore do not form a stratigraphic sequence. Earlier dating with cosmogenic nuclides suffered a high degree of uncertainty and has been questioned on grounds of sediment reworking. Here we use isochron burial dating with cosmogenic aluminium-26 and beryllium-10 to show that the breccia containing StW 573 did not undergo significant reworking, and that it was deposited 3.67 ± 0.16 million years ago, far earlier than the 2.2 million year flowstones found within it. The skeleton is thus coeval with early Australopithecus afarensis in eastern Africa. We also date the earliest stone tools at Sterkfontein to 2.18 ± 0.21 million years ago, placing them in the Oldowan at a time similar to that found elsewhere in South Africa at Swartkans and Wonderwerk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We analyse six undescribed deposits found at the base of the Sterkfontein Caves. [•] A multidisciplinary approach allowed the correlation of deposits to their sources. [•] We recognise an early, distal and basal representative of the M2 deposit. [•] Our work suggests that the deepest chambers contain some of the oldest sediments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: StW 573, Little Foot, is the most complete Australopithecus skeleton yet discovered, with many of its bones found in their correct anatomical position. Since the discovery of the in situ skeleton in the Silberberg Grotto in 1997, several teams have attempted to date the fossil. This appeared a simple process because several flowstones are inter-bedded in the breccia above and below StW 573. Dating of these flowstones, using U–Pb (uranium-lead) isotope decay techniques, gave younger results than expected from the fauna and stratigraphic position, around 2.2 Ma (millions of years). Our recent stratigraphic, micromorphological and geochemical studies revealed that the stratigraphy is much more complicated than was previously thought, with localized post-depositional processes leading to the creation of voids within the breccia around the skeleton. These voids were then filled by multiple generations of flowstone growth. The research we present here demonstrates that the proposed dates based on the flowstone deposition can give only a minimum age for StW 573 and that the flowstone formation came after, and probably long after, the breccia deposition. If one takes account of the long evolution of these karst fillings, StW 573 appears to be significantly older than 2.2 Ma. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides constraints on the evolution of the landscape in the Cradle of Humankind (CoH), UNESCO World Heritage Site, South Africa, since the Pliocene. The aim is to better understand the distribution of hominin fossils in the CoH, and determine links between tectonic processes controlling the landscape and the evolution and distribution of hominins occupying that landscape. The paper is focused on a detailed reconstruction of the landscape through time in the Grootvleispruit catchment, which contains the highly significant fossil site of Malapa and the remains of the hominin species Australopithicus sediba. In the past 4My the landscape in the CoH has undergone major changes in its physical appearance as a result of river incision, which degraded older African planation surfaces, and accommodated denudation of cover rocks (including Karoo sediments and various sil- and ferricretes) to expose dolomite with caves in which fossils collected. Differentially weathered chert breccia dykes, calibrated with 10Be exposure ages, are used to estimate erosion patterns of the landscape across the CoH. In this manner it is shown that 2My ago Malapa cave was ∼50m deep, and Gladysvale cave was first exposed; i.e. landscape reconstructions can provide estimates for the time of opening of cave systems that trapped hominin and other fossils. Within the region, cave formation was influenced by lithological, layer-parallel controls interacting with cross-cutting fracture systems of Paleoproterozoic origin, and a NW–SE directed extensional far-field stress at a time when the African erosion surface was still intact, and elevations were probably lower. Cave geometries vary in a systematic manner across the landscape, with deep caves on the plateau and cave erosion remnants in valleys. Most caves formed to similar depths of 1400–1420mamsl across much of the CoH, indicating that caves no longer deepened once Pliocene uplift and incision occurred, but acted as passive sediment traps on the landscape. Caves in the CoH are distributed along lithological boundaries and NNE and ESE fractures. Fossil-bearing caves have a distinct distribution pattern, with different directional controls, a high degree of clustering, a characteristic spacing of 1700m or 3400m, and a characteristic bi-model fractal distribution best explained by a combination of geological and biological controls. It is suggested that clustering of fossil-bearing caves reflects a Lévy flight patterns typical for foraging behavior in animals. The controlling element in this behavior could have been availability of water in or near groups of caves, resulting in preferential occupation of these caves with accumulation of diverse faunal fossil assemblages. The tectonic drivers shaping the dynamic landscape of the CoH did not involve large, seismically active fault lines, but complex interactions between multiple smaller fractures and joints activated in a far field stress controlled by uplift. The landscape of the CoH, with its caves and water sources and dissected landscape provided a setting favored by many animals including hominins. A modern day analog for what the CoH would have looked like 2My ago is found 50km east of Johannesburg, near the SE margin of the Johannesburg Dome. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This research presents the stratigraphic analysis of the fossil and artefact-bearing Name Chamber deposits at Sterkfontein, in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, South Africa. Two allogenic deposits have filled into the Name Chamber and formed four talus slopes documenting a long history of sediment movement through the Sterkfontein cave system. The depositional regime of the allogenic deposits can be described as a multi-phase, multi-destination redeposition of sediments through a long, narrow and vertical articulating shaft from the now surface-exposed Member 5 deposits in the upper gallery into the lower gallery Name Chamber, during and after the formation of the Member 5 Oldowan-bearing deposit. This regime has resulted in a proportion of the <20 mm component of the Sterkfontein Oldowan assemblage being disassociated from its original depositional context and redistributed much deeper into the cave system. Filtration processes active in the Feeding Shaft have further influenced the resultant faunal and archaeological assemblage profiles. The complex depositional processes influencing the movement of sediments from Member 5 into the Name Chamber are typical of cave sites and illustrate the value of detailed stratigraphic work in sourcing, tracking and understanding faunal and archaeological assemblages from these challenging contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I report here on a micro-residue study of Early Stone Age artefacts from Sterkfontein, South Africa. A total of 33 artefacts was analysed. One part of the sample is attributed to the Oldowan and dates to around two million years ago; another part is attributed to the Acheulean industry, dating to around 1.5 million years ago. Previously, the pieces have been shown to hold micro-residues and ancient DNA. However, due to the great age of the samples, it has been questioned whether the micro-residues were use-related. To investigate this, 1 conducted a micro-residue study on part of the originally analysed sample and on other artefacts with the same provenance; the tools were analysed with a light microscope. Here, 1 first review the taphonomic history of the samples and second, report on the results of the micro-residue analysis. The taphonomic history of the artefacts is complex: biological, mechanical and chemical decay of the organic micro-residues would have prevailed in the Sterkfontein setting and it is highly unlikely that micro-residues are preserved. In addition, the recorded micro-residue distributions fail to satisfy a number of basic criteria designed to distinguish use-related residues from micro-contaminants. There is also an obvious contaminant signal in the form of brightly coloured remains, pollen and ink. Based on these multiple lines of evidence, it is concluded that the recorded remains are not use-related and the contaminant micro-residues probably originate from post-excavation handling and curation. The previous study focused on single remains, whereas this analysis includes the full context of the micro-residues. As a result of the different approach used here, the interpretation of the micro-residues differs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The functional anatomy of the hominin foot has played a crucial role in studies of locomotor evolution in human ancestors and extinct relatives. However, foot fossils are rare, often isolated, and fragmentary. Here, we describe a complete hominin second metatarsal (StW 89) from the 2.0–2.6 million year old deposits of Member 4, Sterkfontein Cave, South Africa. Like many other fossil foot bones, it displays a mosaic of derived human-like features and primitive ape-like features. StW 89 possesses a domed metatarsal head with a prominent sulcus, indicating dorsiflexion at the metatarsophalangeal joint during bipedal walking. However, while the range of motion at the metatarsophalangeal joint is human-like in dorsiflexion, it is ape-like in plantarflexion. Furthermore, StW 89 possesses internal torsion of the head, an anatomy decidedly unlike that found in humans today. Unlike other hominin second metatarsals, StW 89 has a dorsoplantarly gracile base, perhaps suggesting more midfoot laxity. In these latter two anatomies, the StW 89 second metatarsal is quite similar to the recently described second metatarsal of the partial foot from Burtele, Ethiopia. We interpret this combination of anatomies as evidence for a low medial longitudinal arch in a foot engaged in both bipedal locomotion, but also some degree of pedal, and perhaps even hallucal, grasping. Additional fossil evidence will be required to determine if differences between this bone and other second metatarsals from Sterkfontein reflect normal variation in an evolving lineage, or taxonomic diversity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The important question of whether the Australopithecus africanus hypodigm is taxonomically heterogeneous revolves largely around the interpretation of the morphological variation exhibited by the fossils from Sterkfontein. The sex assignment of these specimens is a critical component in the evaluation of their morphological variability. The Sts 5 cranium is pivotal in this regard because it is the most complete and undistorted specimen attributed to A. africanus. Although it has traditionally been regarded as an adult female, this view has been challenged. In particular, it has been argued recently that Sts 5 is a juvenile and that this, together with alveolar bone loss that has supposedly reduced the size of the canine socket, has led to its misinterpretation as a female. Virtual reconstruction of the M3 roots (and/or alveoli) contradicts arguments that these teeth were erupting at the time of death. Regardless, canine emergence and root completion are well ahead of M3 development in juvenile australopiths from Sterkfontein. Thus, even if the M3 root of Sts 5 was incomplete, its canine root would have been fully formed. Measurements of palate depth indicate that the alveolar margins of Sts 5 have not suffered from much (if any) bone loss in the region of the C/P3; any additional bone would result in a palate of truly exceptional depth. Therefore, the dimensions of the canine alveolus of Sts 5 can be regarded as proxies for those of the canine root. The canine root of Sts 5 is among the smallest recorded for any Sterkfontein australopith, which provides strong support for Robert Broom''s initial attribution of sex to this specimen. There is no evidence to contradict the assertion that ‘Mrs. Ples’ is an adult female. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We examine the links between geomorphological processes, specific landscape features, surface water drainage, and the creation of suitable habitats for hominins. The existence of mosaic (i.e., heterogeneous) habitats within hominin site landscape reconstructions is typically explained using models of the riverine and gallery forest settings, or the pan or lake setting. We propose a different model: the Tectonic Landscape Model (TLM), where tectonic faulting and volcanism disrupts existing pan or river settings at small-scales (∼10–25 km). Our model encompasses the interpretation of the landscape features, the role of tectonics in creating these landscapes, and the implications for hominins. In particular, the model explains the underlying mechanism for the creation and maintenance of heterogeneous habitats in regions of active tectonics. We illustrate how areas with faulting and disturbed drainage patterns would have been attractive habitats for hominins, such as Australopithecus, and other fauna. Wetland areas are an important characteristic of surface water disturbance by fault activity; therefore we examine the tectonically-controlled Okavango Delta (Botswana) and the Nylsvley wetland (South Africa) as modern examples of how tectonics in a riverine setting significantly enhance the faunal and floral biodiversity. While tectonic landscapes may not have been the only type of attractive habitats to hominins, we propose a suite of landscape, faunal, and floral indicators, which when recovered together suggest that site environments may have been influenced by tectonic and/or volcanic activity while hominins were present. For the fossil sites, we interpret the faulting and landscapes around australopithecine-bearing sites of the Middle Awash (Ethiopia) and Makapansgat, Taung, and Sterkfontein (South Africa) to illustrate these relationships between landscape features and surface water bodies. Exploitation of tectonically active landscapes may explain why the paleoenvironmental signals, anatomy, diets, as well as the fauna associated with Australopithecus appear largely heterogeneous through time and space. This hypothesis is discussed in light of potential preservation and time-averaging effects which may affect patterns visible in the fossil record. The model, however, offers insight into the landscape processes of how such habitats are formed. The landscape features and range of habitat conditions, specifically the wetter, down-dropped plains and drier, uplifted flanks persist in close proximity for as long as the fault motion continues. The Tectonic Landscape Model provides an alternative explanation of why mixed habitats may be represented at certain sites over longer timescales. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The depositional history of the Name Chamber at the Sterkfontein early hominid site is complex, as is the case with most such cavities. Unravelling this history may therefore benefit from the input of less usual lines of evidence to complement baseline geological investigations. In this case, micromammalian remains from the Western Talus of the Name Chamber provide tentative evidence for the depositional history of these deposits. Correlation of samples based on minimum numbers of individuals referred to genera occurring in one third or more of the samples suggests that a large proportion of the Western Talus material, particularly that from the area infiltrated by the Eastern Talus deposit, originated in the vicinity of squares P54, Q54 and Q55 in the main excavation, from a depth spanning the boundary between Acheulean and Oldowan levels in Member 5. Differences in general diversity between the samples from the main excavation and some from the Name Chamber support the proposal that surface sediments of the homogeneous deposits have been contaminated by material entering the cavern during the 1994 opening of the feeder shaft. Initial taphonomic analysis indicates that all samples, both the original and those from the Name Chamber, were accumulated by the same avian predator, that is, one or more of three owl species (barn owl Tyto alba, grass owl Tyto capensis and marsh owl Asio capensis). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sterkfontein Caves is the single richest early hominin site in the world with deposits yielding one or more species of Australopithecus and possible early Homo, as well as an extensive faunal collection. The inability to date the southern African cave sites accurately or precisely has hindered attempts to integrate the hominin fossil evidence into pan-African scenarios about human evolutionary history, and especially hominin biogeography. We have used U-Pb and U-Th techniques to date sheets of calcium carbonate flowstone inter-bedded between the fossiliferous sediments. For the first time, absolute age ranges can be assigned to the fossil-bearing deposits: Member 2 is between 2.8 ± 0.28 and 2.6 ± 0.30 Ma and Member 4 between 2.65 ± 0.30 and 2.01 ± 0.05 Ma. The age of 2.01 ± 0.05 Ma for the top of Member 4 constrains the last appearance of Australopithecus africanus to 2 Ma. In the Silberberg Grotto we have reproduced the U-Pb age of ∼2.2 Ma of for the flowstones associated with StW573. We believe that these deposits, including the fossil and the flowstones, accumulated rapidly around 2.2 Ma. The stratigraphy of the site is complex as sediments are exposed both in the underground chambers and at surface. We present a new interpretation of the stratigraphy based on surface mapping, boreholes logs and U-Pb ages. Every effort was made to retain the Member system, however, only Members 2 and 4 are recognized in the boreholes. We propose that the deposits formally known as Member 3 are in fact the distal equivalents of Member 4. The sediments of Members 2 and 4 consisted of cone-like deposits and probably never filled up the cave. The U-Th ages show that there are substantial deposits younger than 400 ka in the underground cave, underlying the older deposits, highlighting again that these cave fills are not simple layer-cakes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The bone fragments of the Australopithecus Africanus from the dolomitic cave in the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa have been studied by the use of several spectral techniques. The aim was to establish their degree of preservation and possibilities of inferring the life conditions from them. X-ray diffraction studies revealed the transformation of the mineral components partially into fluoroapatite form with addition of goethite, birnessite and quartz phases and with surprisingly well preserved collagen remains. Several important chemical elements were detected by using the electron (EPMA) and synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence (XRF) microprobes. Among them, Sr and Zn were distributed in a way following the distribution of Ca, the main element of the bones. We suspect the immanent crystallographic substitution of Ca in this case in native bone. Iron followed the distribution of Sr but while Sr is distributed in a continuous way in more rigid locations, iron occurs mainly in the edge zones of the bones and in spot-like inclusions inside. Some part of the spots located in a very edge of bone is also filled with Mn and Cu. It suggests that the porosity and fracture of bones plays a more significant role in the localization of Fe, Mn and Cu. They also form a rigid thin layer (100–250μm) avoiding further penetration. As (as AsO4 3−?) distribution pattern is unique and seems to occur in those locations where the concentrations of Sr are small. The conditions for bone penetration as determined from Eh-pH diagrams suggest that is rather impossible to preserve the organic matter in locations of Mn and also that Mn and Fe hardly can meet in the same spots. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The southern African late Pliocene to early Pleistocene carnivore guild was much larger than that of the present day. Understanding how this guild may have functioned is important for the reconstruction of carnivore-hominin interactions and to assess the potential for hominin scavenging in southern Africa. In modern ecosystems, the coexistence of larger carnivore species is constrained by several factors, which include high levels of interspecific competition. Here, the composition of the fossil carnivore guild is examined using Sterkfontein Member 4 (Cradle of Humankind, South Africa) as a case study. Sterkfontein Member 4 contains 10 larger carnivore taxa (body mass >21.5kg) and may also contain two Australopithecus species. Two possible causes of higher numbers of carnivore species in the South African fossil record are initially considered. First, that there is a bias introduced through comparing assemblages of differing sizes; second, carnivore biodiversity may have been artificially inflated due to previous taxonomic splitting of carnivore species, such as Crocuta. These possibilities are rejected and modern ecological data are used to construct a simple spatial model to determine how many carnivores could have co-existed. Although the resulting model indicates that the carnivore taxa present in Member 4 could have co-occurred, modern ecological studies indicate that it is highly unlikely that they would have co-existed simultaneously. Considering the complex depositional processes that operate in the southern African cave sites, it is proposed that the larger carnivore guild observed in the Sterkfontein Member 4 fossil assemblage is a palimpsest created by time-averaging. In light of this, we suggest that sites which have a large number of carnivore taxa should be examined for time-averaging, while those sites which have relatively few species may be a better reflection of carnivore communities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

AFTER A DECADE OF CAREFUL EXCAVATION, it is now possible to explain how the skeleton came to be in that isolated position in the cavern. Furthermore, it is apparent that the fossil does not belong to either Australopithecus africanus or to A. afarensis, but to an individual belonging to, or closely affiliated to, the second Australopithecus species that is represented in Sterkfontein Member 4 and Makapansgat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated home ranges of grey rhebok and mountain reedbuck at Sterkfontein Dam Nature Reserve in South Africa. Minimum convex polygon (MCP) and adaptive kernel methods were used to estimate home ranges and core areas for six grey rhebok herds and ten territorial male mountain reedbuck. MCP (95%) areas for rhebok herds varied between 30 and 103 ha, while for territorial male mountain reedhuck they varied between 8 and 21 ha. There was < 10% home range overlap between any two neighbouring rhebok herds and 5-35% overlap between any two neighbouring territorial male mountain reedbuck. There was complete overlap between the two species indicating no interspecifie competitive exclusion. Both species used core areas that coincided with steep slopes. Crude densities were 6.4 rhebok/km² and 11.5 mountain reedhuck/km². Rhehok home ranges were smaller in areas with lots of steep slopes, but territorial male mountain reedbuck home ranges were not correlated with any tested ecological parameters. Instead, female occurrence was correlated to steep slopes, and males that held territories with more steep areas had greater access to females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many fossil bones from the dolomitic caves in the Cradle of Humankind are covered by brownish-black coatings of manganese dioxide and smaller amounts of iron oxide. This obscures fine details on bone surfaces, making their identification and interpretation by palaeontologists and archaeologists difficult or impossible. The use of acids to remove the coating is undesirable because of the risk of damage to the bone surfaces. We have developed a novel method which selectively removes the coating without damaging the bone. The method is based on the use of hydrogen peroxide as a reducing agent, which converts iron and manganese to more soluble forms. The procedure is inexpensive, effective, environmentally benign and does not alter the bone surface. It is particularly useful in revealing bone surface modifications, especially those that can reveal evidence of early human behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor is presented in response to an article by Michael Cherry about tourism in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site in Gauteng, South Africa.

The article looks at the Cradle of Humankind archaeological complex in Gauteng province, South Africa, site of many significant hominid fossil finds. The author expresses the view that the site should be set up so that not only researchers and wealthy tourists but the general public can visit. Topics include the Australopithecus africanus fossil found in the Sterkfontein Caves and a movable steel structure installed to allow visitors to observe excavations.