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This paper reports the sixth in a series of meetings held under the auspices of COSPAR (with space agencies support) to identify, refine and prioritize the knowledge gaps that need to be addressed for planetary protection for crewed missions to Mars, as well as to describe where and how needed data can be obtained. This approach is consistent with current scientific understanding and COSPAR policy, that the presence of a biological hazard in Martian material cannot be ruled out, and appropriate mitigations need to be in place. The workshops in the series were intentionally organized to obtain a diverse set of inputs from subject matter experts across a range of expertise on conduct of a potential future crewed Mars exploration mission, identifying and leveraging precursor ground, cis-lunar crewed and Mars robotic activities that can be used to close knowledge gaps. The knowledge gaps addressed by this meeting series fall into three major themes: 1. Microbial and human health monitoring; 2. Technology and operations for biological contamination control, and; 3. Natural transport of biological contamination on Mars. This report describes the findings of the 2022 meeting, which focused on measures needed to protect the crew and the returning Mars samples during the mission, both on the Martian surface and during the return to Earth. Much of this approach to crewed exploration is well aligned with the Principles and Guidelines for Human Missions to Mars described in section 9.3 of the current (2021) COSPAR policy, in terms of goals and intent. There were three specific recommendations., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

The Committee on Space Research’s (COSPAR) Planetary Protection Policy (herein referred to as the Policy) has been developed through deliberation between the scientific community and the national space agencies to 1) ensure that scientific investigations of possible extra-terrestrial life forms, precursors, and remnants are not jeopardized; and 2) Earth is protected from the potential hazard posed by extra-terrestrial matter carried by a spacecraft returning from an interplanetary mission (COSPAR 2020).The COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection (herein referred to as the Panel)regularly updates the Policy based on workshops and activities that are led by the community, or by national committees. For example, the requirements for the icy moons of the outer Solar System have been scrutinized as part of a European Commission’s H2020 Programme (Rettberg et al 2019) and a National Research Council report (NRC 2012), which led to recommendations being made to COSPAR, which resulted in an update to the regulations (COSPAR 2020). Another example is the recent update of the regulations relating to the moon. The Panel conducted a dedicated community consultation that led to an updated Policy (COSPAR, 2021). The Policy relating to Mars has received increased attention over recent years as missions to Mars are being more attainable. The number of missions and nations involved have grown significantly since 2003, and commercial missions from the private sector are becoming more plausible (Liu et al 2022). The Policy regulations have evolved over the decades, as our understanding of the planet has evolved. All missions to Mars have been divided into two categories: III, for orbiters and flybys and IV, for landers or probes, with the appropriate planetary protection requirements; whilst Mars return missions are designated as category V (restricted Mars return). Due to recent reports published regarding the Mars planetary protection, e.g., Spry et al 2021; NAS, 2021, the Panel has taken this as an opportunity to reevaluate scientific data pertaining to the subject of bioburden requirements on Mars and the implications that this has on the Policy and requirements. They focused on three key areas: 1) Biocidal effects of the martian environment; 2) stability of water and 3) transport of spacecraft bioburden. These areas were discussed in the context of survival of dormant and actively growing cells (Rummel et al 2014). Although harmful contamination is most likely to occur due to proliferation, dormant cells are also important as they can be transported to a potential habitable environment e.g., Special Regions (Rettberg et al 2016). We contend that at present there is neither sufficient new evidence in the literature nor scientific community consensus to conclude that the bioburden recommendation for Mars needs to be changed at this point. However, the situation may change in the future with the examination of new data by the Panel. To date, several knowledge gaps that require new targeted research have been identified: Understanding the biocidal effects of Mars surface conditions. Measuring the effect of the atmosphere and dust storms of the kinetics of microbial survival (Spry et al 2021). Measuring the rate of dust accumulation and the impact this has on microbial survival kinetics. Metrological investigations to develop, test and validate contamination transport models (Spry et al 2021). High resolution of the absolute water vapour content, temperature, and wind speed (Rivera-Valentin et al 2021). Understanding the thermodynamics of salt facilitated water vapour (Rivera-Valentin et al 2021). Mars simulation experiments to quantify the metabolic and reproduction rates of terrestrial organisms with ephemeral wetting events with and without salts. We therefore suggest additional international community engagement to further refine this list of knowledge gaps. References: COSPAR (2020) Sp Res Tod. 208, 10-22. COSPAR (2021) Sp Res Tod. 211, 9-11. Fisk L., et al (2021) Sp Res Tod. 211, 9-25. Liu J., et al (2022)Intern J Transp Sci technol. 11, 1-16. Rettberg P., et al (2016) Astrobiol. 16(2), 119-125. Rettberg P., et al (2019) Astrobiol. 19(8), 951-974. Rivera-Valentín E., et al (2021) Bulletin of the AAS. 53(4). Spry J., et al (2021) Bulletin of the AAS. 53(4), 205. NAS (2021) Report Series: Committee on Planetary Protection: Evaluation of Bioburden Requirements for Mars Missions. Rummel J., et al (2014) Astrobiol. 887-968.

Planetary protection (PP) is the scientific discipline that aims to keep the celestial bodies under study and the Earth free of biological and molecular contamination from samples that could have been brought back by space missions. We present here a research collaboration between the University of Vigo, ESA and INTA/CAB to analyse, adapt and test standard Planetary Protection (PP) protocols to avoid biological contamination during the development of future Mars exploration instrumentation. This project is based on the standard PP requirements, procedures and techniques currently used for Mars science instruments, in particular for the Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) developed at INTA/CAB for the ESA ExoMars mission. The goal of the project is to compile, adapt and test these procedures in the current instrumentation facilities at the University of Vigo, so they could be used for the development of science payload in a potential future mission to Mars surface. We will summarize in this contribution the standard requirements and procedures followed by ExoMars RLS team (biological contamination prevention, monitoring and cleaning methods) and how these techniques can be adapted to the University, including the preliminary study of various samples taken at the UVigo SpaceLab and CINTECX FA3 lab facilities to assess the current state of biological contamination., This study has been supported by the ESA Science Faculty at ESAC, INTA/CAB RLS team, UVigo SpaceLab, CINTECX FA3 group and the Faculty of Biology of the University of Vigo.

Planetary Protection is an international concern and responsibility. The international standard for planetary protection has been developed by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) which provides a forum for international consultation and has formulated a Planetary Protection Policy with associated requirements that are put in place after examination of the most updated relevant scientific studies and recommendations made by the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection. The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy, and its associated requirements, is not legally binding under international law but it is the only internationally agreed planetary protection standard with implementation guidelines for reference in compliance with Article IX of the United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967. States Parties to the Outer Space Treaty are responsible for national space activities under Article VI, including the activities of governmental and non-governmental entities. It is the State that ultimately will be held responsible for wrongful acts committed by its jurisdictional subjects.

International audience

The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy describes requirements for different planetary protection categories depending on the type of mission, the target body and the type of scientific investigations [1]. Updating the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy is an iterative process that involves the scientific community. This process is based on new scientific discoveries, new understanding of scientific observations, or, responds to needs identified to prepare future space missions. In consultation with the COSPAR Scientific Commissions B (Space Studies of the Earth-Moon System, Planets, and Small Bodies of the Solar System) and F (Life Sciences as Related to Space), the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection organised a colloquium at the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern, Switzerland, in September 2015, to discuss two pertinent topics: - Icy moon sample return planetary protection requirements - Mars Special Regions planetary protection requirements These two topics were addressed in two separate sessions. The recommendations described in this report are based on discussions in the course of the colloquium and reflect a consensus of the colloquium attendees that participated in one or both separate sessions. Any opinions, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the attendee(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organisations that provided support for their participation.

Contains fulltext : 35038.pdf (Author’s version preprint ) (Open Access) Moon is an inevitable destination in the exploration Space by mankind The use of lunar bases as scientific laboratories is among the most attractive opportunities for the early stages of the exploration of the Moon Environmental conditions on the Moon are beneficial for various types of experimental research Very Long Wavelength radio astronomy is among the most attractive scientific disciplines for the suit of Moon-based laboratories During the last half a century space science has revolutionised astronomy by opening up several hitherto inaccessible windows in the spectrum The opening of each new spectral window has resulted in unexpected major discoveries and made it possible to obtain a comprehensive picture of physical processes in celestial sources by observing their emission in the entire EM-spectrum One of the last remaining unexplored regions of the spectrum is at the lowest radio frequencies Radio emission below 15 MHz wavelengths longer than 20 m is inaccessible from the ground due to ionospheric absorption and scattering Anthropogenic radio interference is also a very serious limiting factor for studying the Universe at wavelengths longer than 20 m The VLW radio region probes unique physical phenomena in the Universe begin itemize item The radiation mechanism that dominates radio astronomy at frequencies above about 50 MHz is synchrotron emission with extragalactic and galactic sources of radiation dominating the radio sky At lower frequencies other mechanisms such as plasma oscillations produce coherent radiation and the A deep (R ~ 19.5) photographic Halpha Survey of the southern Galactic Plane was recently completed using the UK Schmidt Telescope at the AAO. In addition, we have recently started a similar, CCD-based survey of the northern Galactic Plane using the Wide Field Camera on the INT. Both surveys aim to provide information on many types of emission line objects, such as planetary nebulae, luminous blue variables and interacting binaries. Here, we focus specifically on the ability of Halpha emission li