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Targeted financial sanctions are routinely used to combat financial crime. As they are endorsed by the United Nations and the Financial Action Task Force, the vast majority of jurisdictions have established regulatory frameworks that make provision for targeted financial sanctions. These frameworks translate into compliance obligations and expectations for so-called regulated entities, which includes banks. Although sanctions have been the subject of much discourse recently in the wake of the escalation of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the risk of non-performance of contractual obligations due to sanctions compliance has not been explored sufficiently. The objective of this contribution is to shed light on the distinction between compliance with domestic sanctions and compliance with foreign sanctions with specific reference to the risk of non-performance of contractual obligations. It focuses on the basis and legal implications of compliance in each case within the context of the bank-customer relationship. This is undertaken primarily from a South African perspective. The contribution finds that compliance with domestic sanctions may give rise to an interference with contractual performance that is rooted in law, while compliance with foreign sanctions may necessitate an interference that is based on either a contractual provision (force majeure clause) or business and reputational considerations. In both instances, clients of banks are less certain that their payment instructions will be processed and banks, in turn, run the risk of being sued. This tension between sanctions and international banking and finance requires serious reflection by the relevant authorities.

Copyright of Bait Al-Mashura Journal is the property of Bait Al-Mashura Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The contract is the main basis for the emergence of civil legal obligations. It is widely used in all spheres of society. Among the provisions of civil law, norms that are designed to regulate contractual relations, in particular the preliminary contract, occupy a significant place, since the role of such contracts is constantly growing. Creation of a harmonious and effective system of civil legislation is one of the most important areas of development of the legal system of Ukraine. Since one of the main tasks of civil legislation is the fair, impartial and timely consideration and resolution of civil cases in order to effectively protect the violated, unrecognized or disputed rights, freedoms or interests of individuals, the rights and interests of legal entities, and the interests of the state. The needs of modern civil turnover, which is increasingly acquiring the qualities of diversity and intensity, contribute to the development of new types of contracts in which various legal elements are combined. Increased interest in the study of contractual relations sometimes excludes some institutions from its field of view. Among such institutes is the institution of the preliminary agreement, which does not differ in the sufficiency of normative regulation and, perhaps, for these reasons, it has not received the thorough attention of modern scientists, although in practice this agreement is widely used. he insufficient elaboration of the provisions of the previous agreement entails ambiguity in the approaches to its understanding. Until recently, the question of the possibility of recognition by the parties of the preferential right to realize their own interest under the previous contract remains unresolved. A separate place is occupied by questions regarding the classification of agreements concluded as a result of auctions (at one or another stage of their passage) as preliminary contracts. The concept of the form of a preliminary contract also does not find a clear understanding either in the works of civil scientists or in law enforcement practice. It follows from this that the lack of attention to the institution of the preliminary contract in civil studies entails the lack of a sustainable approach in the practice of law enforcement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the study of certain issues related to the participation of military personnel in contractual obligations. The author identifies that the complex processes of formation and development of institutions of civil society, the construction of a legal state, and the reform of the legal system could not help but lead to a change in the legal status of various population groups, the emergence of new subjects of law, which, in turn, influenced the perception and reinterpretation of the concept of "subject of law," highlighting the distinctive features of such a category as "military personnel-special subjects." The author states that the definition of the status of military personnel as a special subject of law is significant for the legal regulation of their behavior, determining their status in connection with interaction with other subjects of law - entry into contractual relations. By analyzing the normative legal acts that regulate the legal status of military personnel, gaps have been identified that should be taken into account in the conclusion, performance, and termination of contractual obligations involving military personnel. However, given that the legislator currently does not have a clear algorithm for resolving these issues, they require additional legislative regulation. In the process of research, it was determined that a military serviceman may be a party to civil obligations. Thus, the performance of civil obligations involving military personnel is determined, first of all, by the corresponding articles of the Civil Code, and secondly, by specific types of civil contracts. The author specifies that military personnel enter into contractual relations during their free time from military service: 1) in the military barracks - as customers in the barber's shop, in military trade and grocery stores - as buyers; 2) when engaging in pedagogical, scientific and other creative activities, if it does not interfere with the performance of military service duties; 3) outside of service and outside the military unit - as passengers, clients, consumers, buyers. In these civil legal relations, military personnel have corresponding obligations as clients, buyers, performers - lecturers, passengers, clients, consumers. The performance of these obligations is determined by the corresponding articles of the Civil Code and civil contracts. The article outlines the problems associated with defining the special status of military personnel and their participation in contractual obligations, and suggests ways to address them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The legal explosiveness of the purchase examination grew increasingly from the 1970s onwards because of the ambiguous legal situation regarding which examinations correspond to the assessment of veterinary due diligence in order to detect all significant and hidden defects. The liability of the veterinarian was limited to cases of gross negligence and intent. Other claims of the client became time-barred after six months. According to the new Sales Law 2002, it is also not possible for a veterinarian to limit their own liability for faulty purchase examinations. The amount of liability can be reduced by contract with the client to cover the insurance cover. There is evidence that a recommendation to document a purchase inquiry and the subsequent conclusion of a contract in writing can be read at the end of the 18th century. At this time, it was finally called upon to record all the guaranteed characteristics of a horse. In the 1970s, and especially after a closed meeting of veterinarians and lawyers in 1987, due to the unclear legal situation, agreements were made to use standardised examination protocols for the purchase examination and record the result of the examination and basic contractual provisions between the veterinarian and the client. After the introduction of the new Sales Law, the protocols have become increasingly detailed, as they now represent the greatest possible legal protection for the veterinarian. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper revealed that the contract law at the conceptual level is substantially similar in common law, civil law and Sharīah to the extent that the writers of Islamic law of contract do not explore, especially in the area of remedies for anticipatory breach of contractual obligations, beyond the boundaries of common law and civil law systems. However, the differences can be found in the application of the remedies. Thus, this paper suggests a method which can be employed to harmonise the area of divergence among these systems of law. Similarly, in the aspect of remedies for breach of contractual obligations, the research recommends that, in a scenario whereby damages are the only remedy to remedy anticipatory breach of contractual obligations, it should be on the ground of non-commitment of the breaker and not on the ground of expectation interest of performing party. The qualitative research methodology is utilised and the data gathered from the valuable literature of the Muslim and western writers were employed to accomplish the study.

Copyright of Journal of the Arab American University is the property of Association of Arab Universities and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal Of the College of Law /Al-Nahrain University is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article is devoted to the application of the right to suspension or complete or partial refusal to perform the obligation in case of non-performance of the counter-obligation by the other party, which provided for in Part 3 of Art. 538 of the Civil Code of Ukraine. The purpose of the article is to determine the scope and mechanism of application of the creditor's right to suspension or partial or complete refusal to perform in case of default by the debtor (to which obligations the right applies and the mechanism of its implementation). The material for the study was the scientific works of classic civilians in the field of compulsory, as well as modern research of Ukrainian civilian scientists. Research results. In the course of the article, the author clarifies which responsibilities should be considered reciprocal, distinction between conflicting and interdependent responsibilities. The author highlights the application of Part 3 of Art. 538 of the Civil Code of Ukraine in case of non-fulfillment by the buyer of the obligation to prepay for the goods. It is proven, that the norm of Part 3 of Art. 538 of the Civil Code of Ukraine may be applied in certain cases to unilateral transactions. The legal nature of the right to suspend or refuse to perform a duty in full or in part has been clarified: the author has concluded that this is the way to protect civil rights and interests. It is noted, that the law under investigation can be applied in case of non-fulfillment of a negative obligation by the other party. At the end of the article the conclusions, made by the author as a result of the research, are stated. In particular, it is stated, that the right to suspend or refuse to perform an obligation is applied in obligations, in which the performance is not simultaneous, but provides for a certain procedure for the parties to perform their duties. The specified right can be applied in case of non-fulfillment by the other party of the obligation of the basic duty, non-fulfillment of the auxiliary duty does not give the right to suspension or refusal of performance of the duty by other party. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We find that many administrative contract disputes occur during the execution of the contract due to drafting defects, which are either poor drafting, inaccuracy or ambiguity, and then arise between the parties to contracts that are defective in drafting complex disputes in their subject matter, which are prolonged, and result in wasting a lot of money. Time, effort, and money for the parties to the contract, as it appears through the analysis of judicial and arbitral rulings that administrative contract disputes are mostly about issues that the parties did not face or did not pay attention to, and thus the accurate and clear wording according to the conditions and legal rules, although it does not end the disputes between the parties to the administrative contract. However, it leads to a significant decrease in the proportion of such disputes. In view of the importance of administrative contracts, care must be taken in drafting them to avoid disputes between the parties to the contract, as it must be taken into account that this contract will serve as the law that governs the relationship between the two parties to the oil contract., and decipher and analyze them, in order to avoid the emergence of future disputes between the two parties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fact that the consumer is the weakest party to the contractual relationship, most of the legislations give him distinct protection against any abuse that hem ay have received from the supplier the dominant party to the relationship. In the digital environnement, the electronic consumer did not receive the same attention until the passage of law No. 18-05 relative to electronic commerce, wich attached a set of obligations to the electronic supplier at the pre-contract stage so taht it was required a visual, readable and written electronic trade show containig some informations that would make the consumer contract with full knowledge. In addition to including another set of informations and obligations. However, Law No. 18-05 still does not provide sufficient protection for the electronic consumer, especially since it deals with person behind the screen.otherwise, the lack of culture and legal awareness still are the biggest enemy of all consumers, especially the e-consumer who does not make different yet between an electronic contract and the business transactions through the social media platformes.

Copyright of International Journal on Humanities & Social Sciences is the property of International Journal on Humanities & Social Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines challenges and proposes legal solutions for the enforcement of contracts especially after the transformation of the economy following Covid-19 and related governmental measures that have swept throughout the world since December 2019. Maximising the role of the judge and increasing the contractual parties' involvement in phases of contractual disputes constitute the core of this research. This article argues for strengthening the contractual guarantees by advocating for the use of the two contract doctrines of force majeure that normally lead to termination of contractual obligations, and changed circumstances that may trigger intervention of the judge to lift the economic burden of the debtor and reach a fair solution. This article also argues for adopting a more flexible approach to the application of the doctrine of change of circumstances during the performance of the contract that not necessarily relies on this traditional distinction between force majeure and hardship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the issues of the most effective satisfaction of state needs through the mechanism of public procurement. The theoretical significance of the study is to identify the main advantages of public procurement using the electronic bidding system, as well as key factors for non-fulfillment of contractual obligations. The analysis of the dynamics of key indicators of public procurement in the Rostov region in 2014–2019 revealed the absolute amount of savings and the preferential use of an open auction in electronic form during procurement. The article substantiates that the main reason for non-fulfillment of contractual obligations in the public procurement system is the insolvency of suppliers. In the future, it is necessary to establish tools for competitive selection of procurement participants, which involves the analysis of indicators of the effectiveness of financial and economic activities of commercial structures

Copyright of Journal of Sharia & Law is the property of United Arab Emirates University, College of Law, Sharia & Law Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The study addressed the impact of the Corona virus (Covid-19) on labour contracts in Qatari and Palestinian labor laws, while these two laws did not include special and explicit provisions dealing with the case in question. The study used the comparative analytical method to characterize the pandemic, and the governmental measures taken in this regard, to apply the result of this characterization to labour contracts and the potential disputes that arise therefrom. The study aimed at finding legal solutions to these various disputes in a manner consistent with the labor law, its various sources, and the civil law. It is concluded that the current legal texts in labor laws and the general rules of the theories of force majeure and hardship are not appropriate in such a context. Accordingly, the study calls for legislative interventions to address the impact of unusual public incidents and closure of facilities on the obligations of parties to labor relation.

The study addressed the impact of the Corona virus (Covid-19) on labour contracts in Qatari and Palestinian labor laws, while these two laws did not include special and explicit provisions dealing with the case in question. The study used the comparative analytical method to characterize the pandemic, and the governmental measures taken in this regard, to apply the result of this characterization to labour contracts and the potential disputes that arise therefrom. The study aimed at finding legal solutions to these various disputes in a manner consistent with the labor law, its various sources, and the civil law. It is concluded that the current legal texts in labor laws and the general rules of the theories of force majeure and hardship are not appropriate in such a context. Accordingly, the study calls for legislative interventions to address the impact of unusual public incidents and closure of facilities on the obligations of parties to labor relation.

Both the 1980 Rome Convention and the Rome I Regulation on the law applicable to contractual obligations have not addressed the issue of the proprietary effects of assignments. Intense doctrinal debate, discussion of the issue in various appellate courts’ jurisprudence as well as (limited) empirical research are the basis for a current draft Regulation that proposes a two-tiered system of connecting factors (law of the assignor’s habitual residence, law of the assigned claim in specific cases). Subject to a few clarifications that are, in the author’s view, highly recommendable the instrument will deliver greatly enhanced legal certainty.

Copyright of Anuario Español de Derecho Internacional Privado is the property of Iprolex SL and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of College of Education / Wasit is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Given the poor national judicial practice regarding the concept of piercing the cororate veil, the article herein aims to make a brief analysis of the origin of this judicial technique, more precisely to summarize the judicial precedents provided by the anglo-saxon jurisprudence that led to the adoption of the „piercing the corporate veil"notion, such aconsideration being indispensable for achieving its goal - to be used by litigans, respectively by the courts of law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main problems facing the governments of various countries in the world is to improve the quality of services offered in the sphere of logistics. Demand for these services is growing as the global economy is returning to economic growth after the financial crisis. However, in many countries throughout a long period of time a considerable part of logistics infrastructure did not receive regular and sufficient investments. Investments are necessary for the improvement and development of the infrastructure, and the state, however, must strictly control its expenses in all economic areas and maintain a low level of tax load in the country. The article discusses the issues connected with the strengthening of scientific and practical interest in public-private partnership conditioned by rapidly growing needs for updating and building-up the infrastructure, including a logistics one, and the government’s lack of necessary financial resources for its modernization. Being an effective means of socio-economic transformation, public-private partnerships got a wide distribution, both in developed countries and countries with transitional economies. Many economically developed countries actively use a suchlike option of cooperation which allows to solve the majority of issues in situations when resources are limited. In order to bridge the gaps existing between available public resources and necessary infrastructure and services costs, as well as to ensure the provision of efficient and cost-effective services, Belarusian authorities are inclined to use the option of public-private partnership. Typically, public-private partnerships include the forms of cooperation between state bodies and the private sector aimed at ensuring financing, construction, reconstruction, operation, infrastructure facility maintenance and/or managing it, as well as/or providing services. The use of suchlike option of interaction allows to expand the scope of private capital participation in economically and socially significant state projects making the partnership between the state and business mutually beneficial.

Copyright of College of Law Journal for Legal & Political Sciences / Magallat Kulliyyat Al-Qanun Li-L-ulum Al-Qanuniyyat Wa-Al-Siyasiyyat is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Wassit for Science & Medicine is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of College of Law Journal for Legal & Political Sciences / Magallat Kulliyyat Al-Qanun Li-L-ulum Al-Qanuniyyat Wa-Al-Siyasiyyat is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this paper is to analyse party autonomy under Rome I Regulation on the law applicable to contractual obligations in comparison with Kosovo law. During this analysis, similarities and differences of this regulation when compared to Kosovo law will be pointed out in order to make clear the position of the party autonomy principle under both jurisdictions. Due to the fact that Kosovo is not part of the mentioned regulation and has recently been in the process of adopting new legislation that has, as its legal base, EU developments in the field of private international law, it will be considered also the Kosovo Draft-Law on Private International Law. Moreover, special attention will be given to the limitations of the party autonomy that represents the central cornerstone of this very well-known principle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In EU and American law, the principle of autonomy has been recognized. For the purpose of unification, Rome 1 Regulation allows parties to choose the law that has no link to the contract. By contrast, in American law, the selected law is required to have a basic or reasonable relationship with the contract. According to Rome 1 Regulation, the chosen law does not affect the application of overriding mandatory provisions of the law of the forum and the law of the performance of the contract. In American law, the chosen law should not be in conflict with public policy of the forum and a fundamental policy of a state which has, substantially, greater interest than the chosen state in relation to the determination of a particular issue. This article examines the positions of European Union and American law regarding the determination of applicable law

One of the important matters in the law of contract is breach of contract and sanctions (remedies) resulting from the breach. In the Iranian Law, resorting to sanctions (remedies) resulting from the contract breach is applicable, when the due date for performance of contract has been arrived and the promisor has not performed his contractual obligations; But it is possible, occasionally, prior to the due date for performance of obligation, on basis of express declaration of the promisor and; or due to existing circumstances, the promisee reasonably conclude that the promisor cannot or will not perform his obligation in due date. In this case, the doctrine of Anticipatory Breach of Contract propound as a new legal establishment and it permits to the promisor , by resorting to sanctions (remedies) of this theory, to gets rid of his obligations in the contract that will encounters with breach in the future ,and proportionately enterprises to suspension or termination of contract. The fundamental question is whether the promise, prior to the due date for performance of obligation, by invoking to this doctrine, can be resorted to sanctions (remedies) resulting from breach of contract or be obliged to wait until the due date for performance arrives. Although such doctrine isn’t considered in Iranian law and there isn’t specific article allocated to it, but in this research through review of Iranian legal system and comparative study with Common Law system, in particular, English & American Law and also international law documents particularly convention on international sale of goods(1980), we conclude that the main bases of this doctrine is available in Figh & Iranian Law and by invoking to general rules and principles can be stated to acceptability of this doctrine in Iranian Law.

Copyright of Romanian Review of Private Law / Revista Română de Drept Privat is the property of Universul Juridic Publishing House and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Autor iznosi neke pravne aspekte gradnje i isporuke broda, osvrćući se pri tome ne samo na neke aspekte hrvatskoga prava, već i na prisustvo engleskoga prava u ugovorima o gradnji broda kako hrvatskih, tako i svjetskih brodogradilišta. Mada se radi o izuzetno složenoj pravnoj problematici, autor nastoji približiti neke od bitnih odredaba ugovora o gradnji broda, temeljna prava i obveze ugovornih strana, posljedice neispunjenja ugovornih obveza, pravne aspekte isporuke broda, ulogu klasifikacijskih društava.

Trading is a part of our society. The man has been trading from ancient times so the amount of trades and transactions around the world is huge. In order for us to initiate, organize and deploy such trades we have to have certain rules which can help regulate the social and professional or legal aspect of trades. Therefore the sole trader capacity must be obtained and used in order for the contracts to be valid. The right and obligations that come with this capacity constitute activities that can be reflected and analysed by obtaining and maintain the sole trader status.

This theoretical and practical part is related to the analysis and studies of the contractual obligations under the private international law. This work is divided into three parts, where respectively, the first part deals with the general part of the contractual obligations; the second part deals with the specific contracts, which are actually found also in a general regulation under law No. 10428, dated 02.06.2011 “Private International Law”; and the third part deals with the international and national jurisprudence aspect. This work as based on the ex-positio sinkronik system aims at giving a minimum contribution in the application of the international private law and clarifies the omission, collision and legal problematic aspects in practice. At the end of this work, there are our conclusions which serve as a deduction over the analysis and studies done to this part of the private international law.

Until the enforcement of the highly controversial transport law, transport companies must already observe the provisions of the new Civil Code1 in their transport business. One of the novelties in the new Civil Code, that came into force on October 1, 2011, refers to the unpredictability clause: recurring to this clause, in certain situations to be precisely analysed by courts, parties may even be exempted from certain contractual obligations, when the court decides to rescind the contract based on objective criteria, not imputable to the party that no longer can properly fulfil the obligations that had been undertaken when the contract had been made. However, this solution only is provided after all means of negotiation and mediation between parties are exhausted. The clause meets current market requirements, under which many companies have to deal with bad paying partners.

Copyright of Review of Juridical Sciences / Revista de Științe Juridice is the property of Review of Juridical Sciences / Revista de Stiinte Juridice and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Chilena de Derecho is the property of Revista Chilena de Derecho and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studia Iuridica Toruniensia is the property of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Faculty of Law & Administration and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article is dedicated to the theoretical and practical aspects of the unification and harmonization of the civil and commercial law in the EU. The article provides the information about main sources of the European law, eg. Treaty on European Union (Consolidated version 2012) and Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Consolidated version 2012). The author also thoroughly analyses and estimates the Rome I and Rome II regulations, as the most important and successful acts concerning unification and harmonisation of the European civil and commercial law nowadays.

The effects of fulfillment of obligations are categorized into two classes: the common effects in all types of contractual obligations and specific ones in some of them. The most significant effect out of all common ones it the exoneration of the principal one under obligation and his extinction of obligation, so that other effects are mainly subordinate and their realization depends on that of the principal effect.Thus it can be said that exonerating the principal one under oldigation from obligation and debt, fulfillment would lead to many other effects such as the extinction of subordinate obligations, liability of guarantors, extinction of the rigw of lien, release of escrow and its securities. On the one had, fulfillment changes the natural debt to legal one. On the other hand, it proves the very obligation and is indicative of its earlier existence. This effect is achievable by a posteriori argument and a specific predominant behaviour among the reasonable of the world. The specific effects of fulfillment in certain contractual obligations are also noteworthy. Transfer of ownership in contracts in which the object of transaction is general, and in real contracts as well as the sale on the condition of the reserve of ownership on the one hand, and extinction of the right of cancellation (choices) as well as prevention of its realization on the other hand are among the significatnt effects of certain contracts.There fore, may classify the effects of fulfillment into three categories of \"major and minor\" , \"common and specific\", and \"positive and substantials.This variety and frequency in effects which is sometimes surprising is not seen in any other legal institutions. Thus fulfillment in contractual obligations is considered unique comparing to other legal institutions.