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Strengthening the financial capabilities of local governments is essential for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Previous research has primarily focused on the flows of finance across countries and regions, neglecting the interaction between international investment and local fiscal response. To address this gap, this study first developed the typology of local environmental spending, and then linked it to a panel dataset composed of 4,439 CDM projects in China and expenditure at the provincial level from 2005 to 2017 to explore the role of international green finance. By categorizing local environmental spending into capital spending and recurrent spending, the findings reveal that international green investment primarily influences the former type, with regional and project type variations. With explanation and discussions of the results, this study contributes to sustainability research by investigating the global-local nexus through a fiscal lens and provides policy insights for local capacity building and global financial system design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen is gaining prominence in global efforts to combat greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. While steam methane reforming remains the predominant method of hydrogen production, alternative approaches such as water electrolysis and methane cracking are gaining attention. The bridging technology – methane cracking – has piqued scientific interest with its lower energy requirement (74.8 kJ/mol compared to steam methane reforming 206.278 kJ/mol) and valuable by-product of filamentous carbon. Nevertheless, challenges, including coke formation and catalyst deactivation, persist. This review focuses on two main reactor types for catalytic methane decomposition – fixed-bed and fluidised bed. Fixed-bed reactors excel in experimental studies due to their operational simplicity and catalyst characterisation capabilities. In contrast, fluidised-bed reactors are more suited for industrial applications, where efforts are focused on optimising the temperature, gas flow rate, and particle characterisation. Furthermore, investigations into various fluidised bed regimes aim to identify the most suitable for potential industrial deployment, providing insights into the sustainable future of hydrogen production. While the bubbling regime shows promise for upscaling fluidised bed reactors, experimental studies on turbulent fluidised-bed reactors, especially in achieving high hydrogen yield from methane cracking, are limited, highlighting the technology's current status not yet reaching commercialisation. • Two main mechanisms in CDM reactions: free-radical, vapour-liquid-solid (VLS) model. • Catalysts can deactivate due to coke formation from filamentous carbon encapsulation. • Fixed-bed reactors help gather experimental data for catalyst characterisation. • Fluidised-bed reactors are optimised via temperature, flow and particle adjustments. • Bubbling and turbulent regimes: strong potential in upscaling fluidised-bed reactors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein, a series of heterogeneous Fenton catalysts, Cu doped MnO2 (CDM), with different Cu/Mn molar ratios were prepared via a hydrothermal reaction. Meanwhile, detailed characterizations were used to study the structures of CDM, and it is amazing that the morphology of CDM changed from nanowires to nanoflowers with an increasing amount of Cu doped. Apart from this, both the specific surface area and oxygen vacancy increased obviously with the increasing Cu/Mn molar ratio. Then, the degradation of different dyes was utilized to evaluate the catalytic activity of different CDM with H2O2 used as the oxidizing agent, and the 50%-CDM with the highest content of Cu doped displayed the best catalytic activity. Herein, the degradation efficiency (D%) of Congo red (CR) solution with low concentration (60 mg/L) reached 100% in 3 min, while the D% of CR solution with a high concentration (300 mg/L) reached 99.4% after 5 min with a higher dosage of H2O2. Additionally, the 50%-CDM also displayed excellent reusability, for which the D% values were still higher than 90% after the 14th cycles. Based on the structure characteristics and mechanism analysis, the excellent catalytic capacity of 50%-CDM was due to the combined influence of large specific surface area and abundant oxygen vacancy. Thus, a promising heterogeneous Fenton catalyst was developed in this study, which proved the treatment efficiency of actual dye wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how global climate mitigation policies articulate with urban political–ecological transformations. It focuses on South African waste-to-value projects as case studies, exploring how local processes of urban ecological modernization combine with global climate finance through the now largely defunct Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Whilst it is generally recognized that waste-related CDM projects in South Africa (and elsewhere) have been an unmitigated failure in terms of climate and socio-economic benefits, we demonstrate that landfill-to-gas/energy projects have functioned effectively as geographical–discursive dispositifs through which particular knowledge systems are enrolled, specific 'solutions' are projected, and singular imaginaries of what is possible and desirable foregrounded, thereby crowding out alternative possibilities. This not only nurtures the commodification and marketization of non-human matter with an eye towards sustaining capital accumulation but, rather more importantly, successfully installs state-orchestrated private property relations around common resources, thereby deepening the dispossessing socio-ecological relations upon which expanded capitalist reproduction rests. We argue that whilst the formal outcome of the CDM is a failure, its success resides precisely in how it permitted local and global elites to create administrative and regulatory practices that solidify and naturalize a neoliberal market-based framework to approach the climate crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study focused on a forensic assessment of bioenergy utilization in developing countries, emphasizing how to improve bioenergy resources for a sustainable economy and development. First, a holistic review of energy sources and their impacts on sustainable development was highlighted. The study also looked at the relationships between various energy sources, both the supply and demand of energy, as the population statistics in developing countries. However, renewable energy is yet to be harnessed fully as it lagged by 0.7%. Shockingly, the African continent is backward in both the global energy supply and in tapping renewable energy sources, as only 6% is contributed. More so, applying a clean development mechanism (CDM) for energy utilization and control shows that net emission reduction and global temperature reduction of 1.5°C by 2030 is attainable. Thus, helping to realize low-cost and sustainable energy (SDG 7) and sustainable cities and communities (SDG11). Further, the assessment of the level of bioenergy availability and its utilization shows that 10% of the world's energy is provided by bioenergy. Interestingly, it is available in every region in the form of biomass. The study is helpful for stakeholders, policymakers, and governments managing the affairs of the energy sector on the need to formulate policy that will guide effective bioenergy utilization and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, especially in developing countries thereby, promoting sustainable economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Private forests offer diverse ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation, which are crucial for Nepal. However, there is a notable absence of comprehensive research on these services. Assessing carbon sequestration in private forests can have economic advantages for forest owners by promoting resource conservation and contributing to greenhouse gas reduction. This study aims to estimate and compare carbon stocks in private forests located in two distinct physiographic regions of Nepal while also identifying the factors influencing these carbon stocks. The analysis focuses on 16 private forests (with 0.1 to 0.5 hectares) each from Chitwan district (Terai region) and Kavrepalanchok district (Hilly region). Field data collection involved direct measurements of tree and sapling diameter at breast height (DBH), as well as height and class of trees and poles, utilizing a total enumeration method. These collected values were utilized to calculate aboveground biomass (AGTB), aboveground sapling biomass (AGSB), belowground biomass, and carbon stock. Private forests of Terai region were dominated by Shorea borneensis, Tectona grandis, and Dalbergia sissoo, whereas the Hilly region was dominated by Pinus patula, Alnus nepalensis, Schima wallichii, and Quercus leucotrichophora. The aboveground biomass carbon in the Terai region's private forests was estimated to be 83.53 t·ha−1, while in the Hilly region, it was 37.32 t·ha−1. The belowground biomass carbon in the Terai region's private forests was found to be 21.72 t·ha−1, compared to 9.70 t·ha−1 in the Hilly region. Consequently, the estimated total carbon stock in the Terai and Hilly regions' private forests was 105.25 t·ha−1 (386.26 t·ha−1 CO2-eq) and 47.02 t·ha−1 (172.57 t·ha−1 CO2-eq), respectively. Carbon sequestration in the Terai region's private forests was discovered to be 2.24 times higher than that in the Hilly region. These findings underscore the significant potential of private forests, which can generate economic benefits through carbon trading and leverage mechanisms such as REDD+/CDM to promote sustainable conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In drug development a frequently used phrase is "data‐driven". Just as high‐test gas fuels a car, so drug development "runs on" high‐quality data; hence, good data management practices, which involve case report form design, data entry, data capture, data validation, medical coding, database closure, and database locking, are critically important. This review covers the essentials of clinical data management (CDM) for the United States. It is intended to demystify CDM, which means nothing more esoteric than the collection, organization, maintenance, and analysis of data for clinical trials. The review is written with those who are new to drug development in mind and assumes only a passing familiarity with the terms and concepts that are introduced. However, its relevance may also extend to experienced professionals that feel the need to brush up on the basics. For added color and context, the review includes real‐world examples with RRx‐001, a new molecular entity in phase III and with fast‐track status in head and neck cancer, and AdAPT‐001, an oncolytic adenovirus armed with a transforming growth factor‐beta (TGF‐β) trap in a phase I/II clinical trial with which the authors, as employees of the biopharmaceutical company, EpicentRx, are closely involved. An alphabetized glossary of key terms and acronyms used throughout this review is also included for easy reference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The construction industry struggles in environmental and economic performance due to waste generation. Several studies have measured this waste in the construction industry of developing countries like India, Brazil, China, Nigeria and Iran, and proposed strategies to enhance the overall efficiency. But no such work exists in Pakistan's context. The construction industry of Pakistan contributes significantly to the country's gross domestic product (GDP). And with several mega projects in progress to overcome the energy crises and improve the infrastructure of the country, the absence of proper waste management policies and plans calls for empirical research. Therefore, this study quantifies and benchmarks material waste in the local context, its impact on project cost and the effect of multiple subcontracting arrangements on waste generation. It also proposes a conceptual waste management plan (WMP) for local conditions which can be generalized for developing countries. Design/methodology/approach: This paper uses a mixed research approach by leveraging Saunders's research onion model. To benchmark the current wastage practices, quantitative data of material waste in the Pakistani construction industry are gathered through document review of accounting systems, inventory and payment records of 40 completed building projects. Using the data, the waste rate of different materials is measured along with their impact on cost. Additionally, the role of subcontracting arrangements in waste generation is also investigated. Also, semi-structured interviews are conducted with project managers of high- and low-performing construction organizations to propose a conceptual WMP for the local industry and developing countries. Findings: The highest wasteful materials by quantity are wood, sand and concrete blocks, and those by cost are wood, bricks and steel. By quantity, 123% more material was used on average than the actual productive work. Also, the labor only (L-O) subcontracting arrangement causes maximum waste. Moreover, the difference between the highest (155%) and lowest wasting company (104%) is 51%, highlighting the proactive and resistive waste management culture and approach by the worst- and best-performing companies. Further, the impact of waste quantities is more than 2% of the project cost. Finally, a conceptual model consisting of measures at the project, industry and national levels is also proposed as a guide for developing countries. Practical implications: The findings of this benchmarking study can help improve the project planning, execution and monitoring, and control practices by providing a better understanding of the material waste potential. This will help economize the construction industry and improve its sustainability. Originality/value: This is the first benchmarking study that quantitatively measures material waste in the construction industry of Pakistan. It highlights that costly as well as sustainability-implicating materials are frequently wasted in the local construction projects. Also, this study correlates the wastage with subcontracting arrangements. Additionally, an original conceptual WMP is proposed that could help the industry improve its performance. The findings could help the construction professionals identify the loopholes in their material management practices and not only save money but also ensure better sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Financing demands for the increasing number of large-scale build–own–operate–transfer (BOOT) hydropower projects in Nepal have necessitated greater mobilization of foreign investment. International investors and lenders perceive significant foreign exchange (FoREX) risk when investing in such projects. In Nepal and various developing countries, FoREX risk-allocation mechanisms offered by the public sector allocate significant FoREX risks to project sponsors and have failed to attract substantial foreign investment. The industry is thus in need of alternative FoREX risk-allocation mechanisms that ensure reasonable returns to project sponsors, minimize downside risk to the public sector, and maintain reasonable electricity tariffs for consumers. To address this need, this study proposes a feasible good-for-all risk-allocation mechanism and presents a financial analysis of the proposed mechanism via a case study of an ongoing Nepalese BOOT hydropower project. The comparative merits of the proposed risk-allocation mechanism over the existing mechanism are illustrated via a case study of an ongoing BOOT hydropower project in Nepal. The case study is also extended to represent different hydropower projects using various cost and revenue scenarios. The results of extended analysis showed that the proposed risk-allocation mechanism should be more effective for economic projects, and that implementation is feasible based on the current institutional arrangements observed in Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is written within the European Project "THREE-Lanka" which has the aim of modernizing the higher education related to Renewable Energy (RE) in Sri Lanka. The paper presents the outcomes of analysing various incentive schemes to stimulate RE development. In Europe, there was substantial growth in RE installation through generous incentives in the first years. Then, to regulate this growth, in recent years, the auction system has been introduced to improve the competition among companies that install RE plants. In Sri Lanka, on the other hand, the main energy tariff policies focus on the spread of PhotoVoltaics (PV) through contributions based on the electricity fed into the grid. This paper provides an updated view of the evolution of the energy tariff policies in the relevant European countries with respect to Sri Lanka, covering some recent policy developments. Within the Sri Lankan framework, four case studies involving residential, commercial, and industrial users are outlined to suggest better mechanisms (in the case of not adequate current incentive tariff) for supporting the deployment of grid-connected PV systems in a wide power range. Such knowledge transfer in the THREE-Lanka project will demonstrate the enormous potential RE capacity in a developing country, still depending on fossil fuels but willing to follow the path towards sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Change detection is an important task in remote sensing image processing and analysis. However, due to position errors and wind interference, bi-temporal low-altitude remote sensing images collected by SUAVs often suffer from different viewing angles. The existing methods need to use an independent registration network for registration before change detection, which greatly reduces the integrity and speed of the task. In this work, we propose an end-to-end network architecture RegCD-Net to address change detection problems in the bi-temporal SUAVs' low-altitude remote sensing images. We utilize global and local correlations to generate an optical flow pyramid and realize image registration through layer-by-layer optical flow fields. Then we use a nested connection to combine the rich semantic information in deep layers of the network and the precise location information in the shallow layers and perform deep supervision through the combined attention module to finally achieve change detection in bi-temporal images. We apply this network to the task of change detection in the garbage-scattered areas of nature reserves and establish a related dataset. Experimental results show that our RegCD-Net outperforms several state-of-the-art CD methods with more precise change edge representation, relatively few parameters, fast speed, and better integration without additional registration networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The addition of functionalized materials (biochar, zeolite, and diatomite) and lyophilized metabolic products of Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus subtilis to composted biomass may bring many technological and environmental benefits. In this study, we verify the effects of biochar, zeolite Na-P1 (Na6Si10Al6O32·12 H2O), diatomite (SiO2_nH2O), and bacterial metabolites on the composting of biomass prepared from poultry litter, corn straw, grass, leonardite, and brown coal. The experimental design included the following treatments: C—biomass without the addition of functionalized materials and bacterial metabolites, CB—biomass with the addition of biochar, CBM—biomass with the addition of biochar and bacterial metabolites, CZ—biomass with the addition of zeolite, CZM—biomass with the addition of zeolite and bacterial metabolites, CD—biomass with the addition of diatomite, and CDM—biomass with the addition of diatomite and bacterial metabolites. Composts were analyzed for enzymatic and respiratory activities, mobility of heavy metals, and the presence of parasites. The results of this study revealed that, among the analyzed functionalized materials, the addition of diatomite to the composted biomass (CD and CDM) resulted in the most effective immobilization of Cd, Zn, Pb, and Cu. Zinc immobilization factors (IFHM) for diatomite-amended composts averaged 30%. For copper, each functionalized material was found to enhance mobilization of the element in bioavailable forms; similar observations were made for lead, except for the compost to which biochar and bacterial metabolites were added (CBM). The determined values of biochemical indicators proved the different effects of the applied functionalized materials and bacterial metabolites on the microbial communities colonizing individual composts. The dehydrogenase activity (DhA) was lower in all combinations as compared with the control, indicating an intensification of the rate of processes in the studied composts. The highest basal respiration (BR) and substrate-induced respiration (SIR) activities were determined in composts with the addition of bacterial metabolites (CBM, CZM, and CDM). The addition of functionalized materials completely inactivated Eimeria sp. in all combinations. In the case of Capillaria sp., complete inactivation was recorded for the combination with zeolite as well as biochar and diatomite without bacterial metabolites (CB, CZ, and CD). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel load frequency control (LFC) approach formulated on an optimal structure of the coefficient diagram method (CDM) in a two-area thermal power system. As part of a realistic analysis, nonlinearities related to governor dead band (GDB) and generation rate constraint (GRC) have been considered. In this article, a hybrid CDM method is combined with the optimization of its mathematical equations to achieve an innovative controller. Furthermore, a new metaheuristic optimization technique called the water cycle algorithm (WCA) is used to determine the optimal coefficients of the CDM controller. For the purpose of demonstrating the validity of the proposed scheme, a wide range of uncertainties in the dynamic parameters of a nonlinear power system were tested. In addition, a comparative study is presented between the results obtained from a classical integral, CDM alone, optimized fuzzy, optimized PID, and the suggested controller. In this new approach to improved control, algebraic support provides a robust and responsive controller that can provide fast and stable dynamic responses and effectively overcome the detrimental effects of nonlinearities and uncertainties in the parameters of the power system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The establishment of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) has greatly improved China's carbon emission trading system. However, due to the unbalanced development of CDM in China, the effects and mechanism of CDM on reducing pollution and carbon are still unclear. In order to explore the effects and mechanism of CDM on the synergistic effects of pollution mitigation and carbon reduction, we first set up a theoretical analysis framework. Utilizing panel data from 254 prefecture-level cities across China spanning from 2004 to 2021, we employ a synergy degree model of composite system to evaluate the synergistic effects of pollution mitigation and carbon reduction. By treating CDM as a quasi-natural experimental research subject, we construct a multi-period difference-in-difference model to assess the CDM projects' effects. Our findings indicate a positive association between CDM projects and the synergistic effects of pollution mitigation and carbon reduction. Heterogeneity analysis reveals that CDM projects located in the western region, areas with lower levels of economic development, non-resource cities, non-old industrial bases, and projects with Certified Emission Reductions issued exhibit the most pronounced synergistic effects. Specially, dynamic policy effect analysis shows that only non-resource cities and non-old industrial bases exhibit enhanced policy implementation regarding CDM. Mechanism analysis demonstrates that CDM primarily enhances synergistic effects through improved energy efficiency, technological innovation and energy transition. These findings enrich empirical investigations concerning market-driven emission reduction policy in China, shedding light on pivotal pathways for synergistic control of pollution mitigation and carbon reduction and offering valuable policy insights for comprehensive economic and social green transformation in China. • We used the multi-period DID model to conduct an empirical analysis of the synergistic effects of clean development mechanism on pollution reduction and carbon reduction. • CDM substantially enhances synergistic effects of pollution mitigation and carbon reduction across China. • Pronounced CDM impacts observed in western cities, low-level economic development regions, non-resource cities, non-old industrial bases, and the projects with CERs. • Greatest CDM policy effects manifest in non-resource cities and non-old industrial bases. • Energy efficiency is a pivotal factor for achieving environmental benefits through CDM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a partnership tool founded under the Kyoto Protocol, grants potential opportunities to help developing countries achieve sustainable development. The present research examines the CDM projects in Eastern Europe (Moldova, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania). Although there were far fewer projects in this region than, for instance, China or India, it has some specific features that make it worth studying. Major findings are that most CDM projects in Eastern Europe involved a changing combination of two or more sources of financing, and the distribution of projects in the region was uneven. Moreover, although there was a small number of projects overall, they were all cost-effective, long-term and large-scale. The findings of the research call for improvements to be made to the governance of the CDM, by strengthening the international and national regulation of projects and by aggregating the scales of decision-making and actions so that real multi-scalar transnational governance — from the global level down to the local level — is implemented in a coherent manner. It is also recommended to carry out ex-post project evaluations, following which readjustments could be made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Ethiopia, biomass contributes to about 92% of the household fuel consumption. As a result, deforestation rate has alarmingly increased associated with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and land degradation. The concerned government agencies have been widely making concerted efforts to reverse the situation by of promotion of improved cookstoves (ICS). However, the performance of these technologies in terms of saving fuelwood and their contribution to CO2 emission reduction in a real kitchen was not studied systematically. Thus, this research was initiated to address the knowledge gap. Methods: The study was conducted in Tigray region in northern Ethiopia. The study households were selected following cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs. A kitchen performance test (KPT) was carried out based on 3 days of repeated fuelwood use measurements to compare the wood-saving performance of ICS in comparison with the traditional cookstove (TCS). The emission reduction potential of both ICS and TCS was calculated based on the Clean Development Mechanism and United Nation's Framework of Convention on Climate Change and presented in CO2 equivalent (CO2e). Results: The result suggests significant differences in total and per capita wood consumption (p < 0.05) between improved and TCS. The use of Mirt and Tikikil compared to the traditional stove has reduced the household wood consumption by 35% and 18%, respectively. Furthermore, ICS stoves also reduced CO2e emission per stove per year by 0.65 and 0.27 tons, respectively. Conclusion: The study deals with the significant contribution that the shift from TCS to the ICS brought in terms of reducing the amount of fuelwood used at household level and the carbon emission per capita. It addresses the crucial roles of such technologies in reducing forest degradation and the associated ecosystem loss. Therefore, policy aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries at household level should at least start via promotions of ICS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was carried out to monitor the ambient concentrations of particulate matter and carbon dioxide caused by vehicular pollution in Srinagar City of Jammu and Kashmir, India, for a period of 12 months from June 2019 to May 2020 as the major contributions in these areas are due to vehicular movement. Out of five, four locations (viz. Dalgate, Jehangir Chowk, Parimpora and Pantha Chowk) had highest traffic density in the city and the fifth location (Shalimar) had low traffic volume. The sampling was done on every fortnight using AEROCET 831—aerosol mass monitor and CDM 901—CO2 monitor with each sampling being carried out three times a day, i.e. morning (9:00 am–10:30 am), afternoon (1:00 pm–2:30 pm) and evening (4:30 pm–6:00 pm) with three replications at each site based on the peak traffic hours. The results show that during the whole period, average PM1 concentrations ranged from 15.10 to 108.9 µg/m3, PM2.5 (28.70–577.50 µg/m3), PM4 (44.50–780.87 µg/m3), PM10 (57.13–1225.53 µg/m3), total suspended particulates (77.77–1410.27 µg/m3) and CO2 (332.4–655.0 ppm). The average concentrations of these parameters showed that the maximum PM1 concentration was found at Dalgate (53.77 µg/m3) and PM2.5 had its maximum average concentration at Jehangir Chowk (140.13 µg/m3). Other parameters like PM4, PM10, TSP and CO2 had a maximum average values at Jehangir Chowk (240.23 µg/m3, 633.40 µg/m3, 853.50 µg/m3 and 533.20 ppm, respectively). The pollution load was observed to be maximum during winter season followed by autumn, summer and spring. The lowest concentration of all pollutants except CO2 was observed in April 2020 and this might be due to COVID-19 lockdown observed in the country during the same period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports a study of Clean Development Mechanism implementation in landfills in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. CDM is supposed to promote sustainable development through projects of GHG emission reductions. This analysis focuses on the power relationships behind the socio-political process of adopting the mechanism in landfills where emissions have been reduced by the breakdown of biodegradable waste. Sociological concepts such as 'ecological practices'; 'market' and 'environmental justice' were used for the analysis. CDM's neoliberal traits combined with local economic interests that shape the waste management domain in Rio can affect the mechanism's capacity to promote local social-environmental progress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INEA has highlighted that the success of such partnerships depends on how the contract has been designed, whether there is a functioning legal system, the relationship with contract and investment law, and often aid or government funding (Mirumachi & Hurlbert, [12]). Lessons learnt from international environmental agreements for the Stockholm + 50 Conference: celebrating 20 Years of INEA Conclusions International environmental agreements are necessary Despite the rise of transnational governance and multiple polycentric approaches, there is growing evidence that international environmental agreements between states are an essential tool for addressing transboundary to global environmental challenges, especially as we reach and/or cross planetary boundaries. While it needs international law to protect its multinationals, and its trade and investment interests, it tends to be a laggard in entering international environmental agreements (e.g. the US has not signed the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea; the UN Convention on Biological Diversity; the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal; the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; and some related human rights agreements). [Extracted from the article]

International carbon markets are core features of climate mitigation policy. They include the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism, the Paris Agreement's Sustainable Development Mechanism, and the International Civil Aviation Organization's Carbon Offsetting Reduction Scheme for International Aviation. Yet, studies suggest that large quantities of international carbon offsets may not result in additional reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. This article examines these markets' legal accountability; in other words, the extent to which their performance can be independently assessed against legal standards, and the potential for consequences if those standards are not met. Specifically, it looks at the markets' internal appeal and grievance processes - or lack thereof - and hypothetical domestic litigation related to the markets' environmental integrity. Drawing on recent climate change cases and law on the immunity of international organizations, the article explores whether courts in Canada and Germany could hold these international markets to account and mitigate the risk that they do not fulfil their purpose of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows developing countries to earn carbon credit units by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Here we assess the emission reduction outcomes of the CDM between 2005 and 2020. The analysis covers 3,311 CDM projects hosted by 79 countries and over 10,000 Monitoring Reports. We identify which host countries and project types departed from original forecasts more. Overall, the total amount of actual emission reductions was 16% below the targets envisaged by project proponents. Emission reduction projects consistently under-performed over the year, but performance varied between and within regions. Industrial HFCs and N2O projects exceeded their targets, whereas landfill gas and methane avoidance projects under-performed by larger margins. Economic gains were unevenly distributed. Estimated revenues relative to GDP were higher for larger emerging economies, and disproportionately smaller for the deprived members of the Global South. Four host countries (China, India, South Korea and Brazil) not only dominated the market, but also gained an advantage from the higher carbon prices before 2012. Least Developed Countries had their carbon credits issued in more recent years when prices were much lower. The results show an imbalance in economic outcomes and raise questions about the effectiveness and equity of this Kyoto mechanism. Weak targets under Paris Agreement could intensify these challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prediction of air pollution is of great importance in highly populated areas because it directly impacts both the management of the city's economic activity and the health of its inhabitants. This work evaluates and predicts the Spatio-temporal behavior of air quality in Metropolitan Lima, Peru, using artificial neural networks. The conventional feedforward backpropagation known as Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) and the Recurrent Artificial Neural network known as Long Short-Term Memory networks (LSTM) were implemented for the hourly prediction of PM 10 based on the past values of this pollutant and three meteorological variables obtained from five monitoring stations. The models were validated using two schemes: The Hold-Out and the Blocked-Nested Cross-Validation (BNCV). The simulation results show that periods of moderate PM 10 concentration are predicted with high precision. Whereas, for periods of high contamination, the performance of both models, the MLP and LSTM, were diminished. On the other hand, the prediction performance improved slightly when the models were trained and validated with the BNCV scheme. The simulation results showed that the models obtained a good performance for the CDM, CRB, and SMP monitoring stations, characterized by a moderate to low level of contamination. However, the results show the difficulty of predicting this contaminant in those stations that present critical contamination episodes, such as ATE and HCH. In conclusion, the LSTM recurrent artificial neural networks with BNCV adapt more precisely to critical pollution episodes and have better predictability performance for this type of environmental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although small and medium enterprises are important in the production and employment, these firms have structural limitation in terms of human and material resources. These limitations are highlighted after implementation of targeted subsidies in Iran, release prices of energy carriers, and simultaneity of political and economic situation. The main challenge in the current path of sustainable development is addressed to all sectors of society such as engineering and production. Manufactured products must consider the impact of three aspects of sustainability over their life cycle. The three aspects of sustainability as an integral part of sustainability issues are economic, environmental, and social factors. Therefore, in this study, for achieve sustainable economic development in Iran, consider only economic aspect. Because, it will greatly benefit from the transfer of advanced production technologies in industry through international agreements such as the clean development mechanism (CDM). However, the highly competitive environment is critical because of more cost-effective projects, which is why Iran needs to strike a balance between sustainable development and profitability for projects. In this study, identifying and ranking of major challenges of leading small and medium industries have been studied. It also uses the failures mode and effect analysis (FMEA) technique and survey experts and managers of small and medium industries in the province recognized and decision model using several branches. VIKOR was ranked as the most important challenge. The results show that exchange rate volatility has been the highest priority, so the first challenge has been identified. Similarly, the political boycott and the rise in the cost of production and cost of product manufacturing enterprises were identified as the next challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aiming to assist the environmental sustainability of the Brazilian Amazonian agriculture, this article developed an eco-efficiency index, indicating the possible limits to maximize economic and environmental objectives, taking into account the best practices in the municipalities of the region. Shadow prices of degraded areas and forest preservation were also estimated using data envelopment analysis with directional distance functions. The results indicate that, on average, the analyzed municipalities are able to expand the production and the forest areas by 38% and reduce degraded areas and their inputs in the same proportion. The shadow prices allowed the estimation of the annual opportunity cost of the degraded areas and the preservation of the forest on the farms. The first, US$ 3,131,571, represented 0.04% of the annual output value, indicating that the internalization of that cost should be a low burden for the eco-efficient producer. The second, the total cost of preserving 80% of the area of property, represented US$ 120,890,662 or 1.7% of the annual income of the biome producers studied. Therefore, the main conclusion of this work is that the internalization of negative and positive externalities of agricultural production in the Amazonian biome does not make agricultural production economically unfeasible in the region. In addition, the reimbursement of damages avoided by carbon sequestration, through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) established by the Kyoto Conference, should further increase the economic and environmental sustainability of agriculture in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the procedure for an extensive survey of hydropower potential locations to be employed at the originating hydropower development planning stage in a basin. The approach utilized spatial tools such as Arc-Hydro, Remote Sensing (RS), and GIS to characterize the Osse Sub-basin (OSB) and Natural Resources Conservation Service - Curve Number (NRCS-CN) hydrological model to compute the stream Peak discharge Qp. This method permits identification of Small Hydropower (SHP) potential locations by considering obtained catchment parameters along the drainage network in a run-of-river project that satisfies the requirement of establishing hydropower plants, which is difficult to achieve in traditional survey study. Results indicate 18 out of 148 points examined in OSB can produce between 677.485 kW and 7622.877 kW clean energy at 92% flow exceedance annually, preventing between 555.8 and 6543.0 tCO 2 /yr emission from polluting the environment if developed against GHG emission sources. The calculated project cost range is £ 937,167.48–4,048,733.99. This study establishes first clean development mechanism (CDM) procedure in Nigeria to help future activation of SHP resources by identifying SHP promising project sites that can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits in the optimization model named SHP Resource Assessment and Sustainability Analysis (SHPRASA). •RS, GIS, and NRCS-CN model helps in quantitative description of catchment geometry. •Exact evaluation of SHP potential incorporating CDM is feasible at inception phase. •PERSIANN-CDR satellite data is adequate for hydrological research in Nigeria. •The study identifies SHP promising projects that can earn saleable CER credits. •OSB can produce between 677.485 kW and 7622.877 kW clean and reliable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Burkina Faso like many other African countries hosts many renewable energy (RE) and energy efficiency (EE) projects that are not registered to the clean development mechanism (CDM), but which could represent potential CDM opportunities. This study seeks to determine these projects’ impact on the level of CO2 emissions in the country, and to determine their CDM potential by quantifying their carbon emissions reduction, using approved CDM methodologies adapted to the projects. 21 RE projects and 7 EE projects were considered, and all proven to be additional. Results revealed that, 68,709.424 MWh and 9,430.446MWh were saved and displaced by the EE and RE projects respectively annually, accounting for 48157.668 tCO2e emissions reduced annually. This accounts for a 63.12% emissions reduction from the baseline scenario and represents a huge potential for the CDM, ready to be harnessed. The total amount of emissions reduced could generate about 4,8157.668 Certified Emissions Reduction (CERs) yearly. Considering a carbon price of $10/tCO2e and a 10-year fixed crediting period starting from 2020 would imply a total revenue of $4,815,766.8 in 2030 from the CERs, which will increase the sector’s attractiveness to investors. Policies promoting the registration of these projects to the CDM are essential to boost the development of more of such projects in the country/ region, which will benefit from the sustainable development the CDM offers, while contributing to the achievement of its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to analyze the challenges to, and opportunities for, increasing sustainable development (SD) co-benefits delivered by clean development mechanism (CDM) wind power projects in northeastern Brazil and the resulting implications for climate and energy policies. Five methodological phases were met: First, a documentary research was conducted in the main CDM database; second was a literature review, creating the analytical framework and a survey questionnaire needed to assess the SD co-benefits from the projects; third, documentary research was used to enable ex-ante analysis of the SD co-benefits proposed in the CDM Project Design Documents (PDDs); fourth, survey allowed for the analysis of SD co-benefits perceived by project entrepreneurs (ex-post analysis); and finally, a comparison between the ex-ante and ex-post analyses was completed. The results show the importance of carrying out SD co-benefit studies after the implementation of CDM projects in order to learn lessons for new mechanisms of climate governance. The lowest SD co-benefits were water management improvement in the project influence area, soil pollution prevention, health and safety improvements and technology transfer. The greatest opportunities for increasing SD co-benefits come from the environmental licensing process and the strengthening of Corporate Social Responsibility. The greatest challenges are new technology development, stakeholders' engagement and SD co-benefit audits. We conclude that the improvement of multi-level climate and energy governance plays a key role in increasing SD co-benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Given the large bamboo resource base with considerable potential to act as an important carbon sink, Ethiopia has included bamboo in the national Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation and enhancing forest carbon stocks (REDD+) and Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) programs. However, little is known about the carbon stock and sequestration potential of bamboo forests. As a result, this research was conducted to quantify the carbon sequestration and storage capacity of Oxytenanthera abyssinica forests in the Lower Beles River Basin, northwestern Ethiopia. To this end, a total of 54 circular plots, each measuring 100 m2 with a radius of 5.64 m, were established to conduct the inventory in Assitsa and Eddida bamboo forests, the typical bamboo sites in Lower Beles River Basin. Biomass accumulation of bamboo was estimated using an allometric equation based on diameter at breast height (DBH) and age. Soil samples were taken from two different soil depths (0–15 and 15–30 cm) to determine soil organic carbon. Results: Results indicate that the mean biomass of the bamboo forests in the study area accounted for about 177.1 ± 3.1 Mg ha−1. The mean biomass carbon and soil organic carbon stock of the bamboo forests were 83.2 ± 1.5 Mg C ha−1 and 70 ± 1.7 Mg C ha−1, respectively. Therefore, the mean carbon stock of the O. abyssinica bamboo forests was 152.5 ± 2.5 Mg C ha−1 to 559.8 ± 9.0 ton CO2 ha−1. Conclusion: This study highlights the importance of assessing bamboo's carbon stock and sequestration potential for enhancing its role in climate change mitigation and sustainable resource management. The O. abyssinica bamboo forests of the study area have significant carbon stock and sequestration potential. Therefore, sustainable management of these crucial vegetation resources will enhance their role in providing ecosystem services, including climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The clean development mechanism (CDM) was created with two main goals: help developed countries achieve the greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets set out in the Kyoto Protocol and provide sustainable development to developing countries who host the projects. Sustainable project management shares the same goals as the CDM project, which could be a valuable asset in the development of new projects. Much has been discussed about the effectiveness of the program in achieving those goals and even more in the post-2012 period when the CDM has experienced fewer new projects and lower certified emissions reduction (CER) prices compared to previous years. Based on Brazilian CDM project data, this works aims to analyze the economic aspect of sustainable management by observing the influence of the obtained CERs on the internal rates of return (IRRs) of a small hydro plant (SHP) according to the current CDM scenario, marked by CER prices reaching their lowest historical values. For this study, a spreadsheet was developed to simulate a project's cash flows and thus determine its IRRs. The results show that using the current CER prices, carbon credits do not significantly affect SHP projects' IRRs, with increases of less than 0.2% compared to a scenario with no credits. CDM projects may benefit more from optimizing the investment costs or increasing energy production. These results highlight a need to emphasize the sustainable benefits of the CDM program rather than only focusing on the economic return perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Coastal landfills in Seychelles are a large source of GHGs and marine debris. • Profitability of MOL measures is dependent on SB material existing in the SIDS. • Small-scale MOL measures under CDM can be profitable for CER prices of 26 €/tCO 2 eq. • MOL can be cost-effective for GHG emission abatement from domestic climate efforts. • MOL measure contributes to certain SDG achievement – mainly SDG8, SDG13, and SDG14. Unclosed coastal landfills in small island developing states are major sources of greenhouse gases and other environmental impacts. This is a major problem for sustainable waste management systems mainly due to the lack of economic resources. The clean development mechanism (CDM) appears as a possibility to facilitate sustainable financing. Implementing a methane oxidation layer (MOL) emerges as a feasible technical option for this kind of small landfills since landfill gas extraction is usually not viable. This paper presents a techno-economic and environmental assessment of MOL implementation in the Providence landfill (Seychelles) as a small-scale CDM measure. Results show that the MOL measure could avoid by 2030 between 94 and 20 kt CO 2 eq. Concerning profitability, results clearly show that it depends on the existence of stabilized biomass material within the island. Thus, the MOL measure starts to be profitable in some scenarios for certified emission reductions (CER) prices higher than 26 €/t CO 2 eq. that seem possible depending on the emissions' market development. When not profitable under CDM, the MOL measure might be used to reduce CO 2 emissions from the domestic climate effort under the Paris Agreement since the unitary abatement costs is between 10 and 423 €/t CO 2 eq. Moreover, the MOL measure contributes to the sustainable development goals (SDG) achievement – mainly SDG8, SDG13, and SDG14. Finally, results call for a prompt action in Seychelles since the sooner the MOL is implemented after the landfill is closed, the more profitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity offset, with a focus on securing biological validity, is primarily practiced in developed countries. However, various social issues, such as the tradeoff between ecosystem conservation and the use of ecosystem services, have arisen and require attention. To address these issues, this study proposes an approach applicable at the planning stages of coral offsetting. We propose a comparison of the relationship between social characteristics and coral ecosystem services across offset candidate sites, suggest an analysis of restorability and the extent of human dependency on coral ecosystem services as part of the process of selecting an offset site, and confirm the practicability of our approach for a specific case of coral offsetting in a developing country. The results reveal that all candidate sites (even across a small area) have advantages and disadvantages regarding the mitigation of social issues. We further discuss the implications of these results with respect to the sustainable usage of endangered corals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates Central American countries' participation in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which was instituted by the Kyoto Protocol to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The authors examine whether this mechanism promotes sustainable development in host countries, whose economies are relatively small. Simultaneously, the authors conduct a multi-criteria evaluation of large-scale CDM projects in Central America. Findings show that the mechanism advances host countries' current priorities, rather than promoting sustainable development, thereby failing to meet one of the objectives of the CDM. Economic progress is a high priority at the local level and, accordingly, economic benefits outweigh social benefits, with local environmental costs being incurred in the process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose: The purpose of this research is to rank the most significant factors of organizational structure that can reduce time and cost overruns (nonphysical waste) in road projects of the developing countries. Additionally, the effect of factors of organizational structure on nonphysical waste in road projects is also measured. Design/methodology/approach: Factors of organizational structure causing time and cost overrun are extracted through a content analysis of the published literature. Moreover, a questionnaire survey is carried out involving 128 professionals to assess the effect of organizational structure factors on time and cost overrun. Finally, to obtain a more objective evaluation, relative importance index and regression analysis techniques are utilized, and the most severe factors influencing time and cost overrun are indicated. Findings: This study found out that top management support and procurement procedures are the most significant factors influencing time and cost overruns in road projects of the developing countries. Originality/value: A small number of studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of factors of organizational structure on time and cost overrun in the construction industry. And even more, its relation with respect to road projects of the developing countries is limited. This research highlights the effect of most significant factors of organizational structure that influence the nonphysical waste in road projects of the developing countries. Therefore, this study adds to the body of knowledge by recommending that all the stakeholders of construction project should pay close attention toward these factors to control the enigma of time and cost overrun. It might also prove helpful, if implemented to its full extent, in all the road construction activities undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For developing countries, energy infrastructure projects are not only important from a political and strategic point of view, but they are also of major significance in terms of sustainability. Energy infrastructure projects have major impacts on all three pillars of sustainability, that is, social, economic, and environmental. Refinery projects can have an even bigger impact on all three pillars, in terms of magnitude and severity of the consequences. Therefore, it is important to introduce methods and solutions to improve the level of sustainability at which petroleum refinery projects are designed, constructed, and operated. Petroleum refinery projects are multidisciplinary, multiattribute, and multistakeholder projects and decisions in this regard are always difficult to make and unclear about sustainability in the life‐cycle of the project. To deal with these complexities, a dynamic sustainability assessment framework has been proposed in this study. In this framework, different petroleum refinery project's properties such as location, size, functions, stakeholders, products, environmental resiliency, and so on are considered in various life‐cycle phases and are used to come up with a customized framework. Accordingly, a hierarchy of the latest and the most suitable Multiple Criteria Decision Making methodologies are utilized for different decision‐making environments to realize the required dynamicity in these projects. The methods used here are Grey Weighted Aggregated Sum Product Assessment, Fuzzy Evaluation based on Distance from Average Solution, and Combinative Distance‐Based Assessment, each of which are proposed for different decision‐making levels. The proposed methodology is applied to a real petroleum refinery project as a case study. Based on the case study results, the economical pillar gets nearly 50% of the importance based on the project's specific situation. Also, health, atmosphere, and economic performance are the most important indicators among social, environmental, and economic pillars, respectively. At the lowest level, quantitative factors are also ranked and weighted. For instance, the frequency of labors' illness is the highest health factors in the social pillar of sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues that the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)'s conception of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDRRC) was never effectively implemented through the Kyoto Protocol. The investments under the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism suggest that CBDRRC has been used by developed countries to buy a "right to pollute", i.e., maintaining or even increasing their greenhouse gas emissions, while investing in clean energy in developing nations, thus defeating the essence of CBDRRC as intended under the UNFCCC. Second, it points out that the Paris Agreement reflects a significant shift in the overall concept of CBDRRC, both in terms of its textual understanding as well as its implementation. A qualifier, "in the light of national circumstances", was added to the principle of CBDRRC in the Paris Agreement, allowing a form of voluntary self-differentiation. This qualifier diluted a top-down, objective analysis of States' commitments. For several scholars, this shift has meant a softening of the principle, making the "differentiation" more dynamic and flexible. In the authors' opinion, the qualifier is a fundamental modification of the principle to make it politically more palatable. It completely disregards the notion of historical responsibility for climate change, which was the cornerstone of CBDRRC as conceived under the UNFCCC. Therefore, rather than presenting a more flexible understanding of UNFCCC's conception of CBDRRC, the Paris Agreement marks a total departure from it. Lacking an explicit redefinition of the principle of CBDRRC, it is misleading to contend that the Paris Agreement is still anchored in it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]