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A 2-MONTH BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM TESTED WHETHER A TOKEN REINFORCEMENT MIGHT BE AN EFFECTIVE INCENTIVE TO STIMULATE A DESIRED EDUCATIONAL BEHAVIOR. THE SUBJECTS (SS) WERE TWO MATCHED GROUPS OF FIVE 16- TO 21-YEAR-OLD GIRLS WHO WERE SCHOOL DROPOUTS EMPLOYED IN A NEIGHBORHOOD YOUTH CORPS (NYC) PROGRAM. A CLASSROOM GROUP WAS GIVEN A BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM WITH TOKEN REINFORCEMENT AND THE NYC JOB PLACEMENT, WHILE A JOB GROUP RECEIVED ONLY THE NYC PLACEMENT. BOTH GROUPS WERE PAID ACCORDING TO THE REGULAR NYC PAYMENT PRACTICES. THE REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM FOR THE CLASSROOM GROUP USED A POINT SCALE TO CORRECT ANSWERS (89 PERCENT CORRECT CRITERION) TO INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS WHICH WOULD DETERMINE THE GIRLS' SALARIES AND A POSSIBLE REWARD OF COMMODITIES. THE GIRLS WORKED INDIVIDUALLY ON THE COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND PACED THEMSELVES. THE POINT VALUES WERE SHIFTED TO INCREASE THE PROBABILITY OF THE SS' WORKING MORE INTENSIVELY IN THE AREAS OF GREATER DEFICIENCIES. A COMPARISON OF PRETEST AND POST-TEST CALIFORNIA ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES SHOWED A MEDIAN INCREASE OF 1.3 YEARS FOR THE CLASSROOM GROUP AND 0.2 YEARS FOR THE JOB GROUP. THE OVERALL REMEDIAL PROGRAM INCREASED THE ACADEMIC SKILLS OF THE GIRLS IN A RELATIVELY BRIEF PERIOD, AND THE TOKEN SYSTEM SEEMED TO BE FUNCTIONAL BECAUSE THE CHANGES IN THE NUMBER OF POINTS WHICH COULD BE EARNED IN CERTAIN WORKBOOKS MODIFIED THE STUDENTS CHOICE OF MATERIALS. (NH)

The reduced social contact which became necessary during the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) occurred against a backdrop of elevated levels of loneliness, both in Malta and abroad. The present study used a quantitative online survey to assess levels of loneliness vis-à-vis intensity and frequency amongst a sample of Maltese adults (N = 906), as well as exploring any relationships between loneliness and sociodemographic variables. Results showed that frequency of self-reported loneliness was associated with age group, nationality, and occupational group. Younger participants and non-Maltese persons residing in Malta reported more frequent loneliness compared to older age groups and Maltese persons, respectively. Occupation type was significantly associated with both loneliness frequency and loneliness intensity, with participants working in entry-level positions or not in employment reporting more frequent loneliness and being more likely to be severely or very severely lonely. Rates of loneliness intensity were markedly higher across the sample, when compared to findings from the previous year, before the pandemic. These findings highlight the need for loneliness interventions which target specific sociodemographic groups in order to alleviate loneliness during the enforced social distancing measures of a pandemic., peer-reviewed

Substance use trajectories most often commence during the adolescent years (Sampson & Laub, 2016; White et al., 2005), may escalate in emerging adulthood (Andrews and Westling, 2016; Arnett, 2016) and most often are terminated on entry into adulthood (Prins, 2008). Some individuals move on to use drugs problematically. A wealth of evidence supports the significance of age in relation to risky behaviours, including substance use (Sampson & Laub, 2016). Extensive research indicates that substance use at a young age, particularly during early adolescence, has more serious consequences than it would otherwise have if substance use started later on in adulthood (Griffin et al., 2000). Understanding the prevalence of youth substance use is therefore an important consideration for policy and service development. Researching trends in adolescent substance use, sheds light on the effectiveness of prevention efforts and alerts prevention science to new emerging risk behaviours. The Save a Life Foundation in collaboration with the Faculty for Social Wellbeing therefore embarked on this research project documenting the state of play of knowledge into youth substance use in the Maltese context. This project brings together the vast array of statistical data available on the subject and compiles this into a meaningful review that is theoretically based and located within a sociological understanding of Maltese society in the early 21st century. This project was guided by the following objectives: • to compile into one comprehensive document the developing trends of youth substance use on the Maltese Islands in the last two decades; • to locate these within a theoretical understanding of youth and youth transitions on the Maltese Islands; • to explore the perspectives of experts in the youth and addiction sectors on substance use among youth in Malta; and • to make recommendations for research, policy and service development. Chapter 1 introduces the subject matter, presents a rationale for the study and identifies the research questions and methodological approach. The study uses a mixed methods approach drawing on both primary and secondary data. Chapter 2 presents a descriptive literature review on the topic of youth and youth substance use located within a theoretical understanding of youth and youth transitions on the Maltese Islands. With a focus on 13–30 year olds, as defined by the Maltese national youth policy, this chapter presents a brief history of the development of the understanding of adolescence. The sociohistorical transformations and the rapid changing times impact the experiences of adolescents, offering young people both new opportunities and risks (Beck, 1992). Arnett (2004) in fact, argued that the experiences of young people in technologically advanced societies changed dramatically and coined the term ‘emerging adulthood’ as a new universal life stage where young people are no longer adolescents but are not yet adults. The chapter provides a review of theories of adolescent development and concludes with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) framing the transitions young people go through in their life course. The chapter proceeds towards a review of different aspects of development in adolescence and emerging adulthood and the situation of young people in late modernity and in the local context. The recent decades are marked by major changes which brought about progress and innovation, as well as changes for young people. The chapter concludes with a review of the risk and resiliency factors surrounding substance use in adolescence and summarises some of the main findings from international data since local studies on risk and resiliency factors for substance use among young people are limited. Drawing on the seminal work of Bronfenbrenner, (1977; 1979), for the purposes of this review, risk and resiliency factors are discussed in relation to five domains in the young person’s life: (i) individual, (ii) family, (iii) peer, (iv) school/employment and (v) the wider community, and the interrelations among these dimensions. Chapter 3 presents an analysis of the primary and secondary data collected. This chapter discusses trends in youth substance use and looks into specific categories of substances from alcohol, through tobacco, cannabis, the non-medical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) and other drugs. We present findings related to the onset of use of these substances, their prevalence, availability, and factors surrounding young people’s use of these substances. Treatment data are also presented. Finally, the perspectives of 11 youth and addiction experts are analysed and discussed in view of the observations drawn from the secondary data. Chapter 4 presents the main findings and a number of recommendations for policy, further research and prevention as outlined below. The review of the literature and the findings from both the primary and secondary data collected for the purposes of this study lead to a number of conclusions: • While according to Maltese national youth policy young people are persons between the ages of 13 and 30, it is important to acknowledge the different developmental challenges and needs of adolescents and emerging adults (young people in their 20’s). • Young people’s experiences are best understood in an ecological model that considers the impact of a number of systems including the family, the peer group, the school/workplace and the wider community; the interaction between these systems; as well as the broader cultural and historical context the young person is situated in. • Maltese society has experienced a period of rapid social change that impacts considerably the life-world of young people in the 21st century. • Simple answers to the question “what causes drug abuse?” cannot easily be found. • A number of ‘risk’ and ‘protective’ factors are identified in the literature. These present themselves differentially across the development of the substance use trajectory and in relation to five domains in the young person’s life: individual; family; peer group; school/ employment; and, wider community. • Onset of substance use occurs during adolescence and peaks in early emerging adulthood., peer-reviewed

The present study examines the psychological aspect of fear, in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, in an attempt to understand the effects of this pandemic on University of Malta students’ substance use and wellbeing. Participants (n = 777) completed an online survey which utilised the Fear of COVID-19 Scale, as well as items relating to religiosity and substance use prior to, and during, the COVID-19 pandemic. Results show that significant associations exist between fear of COVID-19 and self-reported increase in alcohol use, as well as impacts of COVID-19 fear on negative emotional conditions such as depression, exhaustion, and loneliness. Significant associations were also found between fear of COVID-19 and gender and religiosity, with females and more religious participants experiencing higher levels of fear of COVID-19. These findings reveal the multifaceted interactions between fear of COVID-19, religiosity, and gender on students’ wellbeing and substance use, with potential recommendations for further research and practice., peer-reviewed

Background: The phenomenon of loneliness has been described as an epidemic in modern societies, given its detrimental effects on psychological and physical health. Evidence also indicates that rates of loneliness are increasing, and that the phenomenon is closely linked to a number of structural variables. Although the experience of loneliness is a natural part of the human condition, studies show that prolonged or severe loneliness can have negative outcomes for those experiencing it. Whilst a dearth of empirical evidence exists regarding the prevalence of loneliness in Malta, there is an indication that loneliness is on the increase – such as the rising rates of calls to the national support line by persons suffering from loneliness, as well as the results of a study conducted by Caritas Malta showing that half of the elderly residents in a rural town of Dingli are lonely. Project Purpose and Design: This study had the following objectives: • To assess the prevalence of loneliness amongst the Maltese population, • To explore any existing relationships between loneliness and particular socio-demogr aphic and structural variables, and • To contribute to the existing body of empirical research on the topic of loneliness. These objectives were attained through the use of a Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) procedure. The questionnaire used included a standardised loneliness scale, the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, in addition to several socio-demographic questions. The questionnaire was made available in either English or Maltese and data collection was carried out during the month of March 2019. The Sample: This study surveyed a representative stratified random sample of all persons living in private households in the Maltese Islands, aged 11 years and older. The sample was stratified to ensure adequate representation based on gender, age group, and district. Results: The results of this study show that a total of 43.3% of individuals residing in the Maltese Islands experience some degree of loneliness. Of these, 41.3% are moderately lonely, 1.7% are severely lonely, and 0.5% are very severely lonely. A number of socio-demographic variables were significantly associated with loneliness amongst the Maltese population. These are: • Age group • Level of education • Labour status • Household composition • Mortgage status • Perception of household income • Subjective physical health • Subjective coping ability • Subjective wellbeing • Presence of a disability These significant associations reveal the factors which increase individuals’ likelihood of experiencing loneliness. A person is more likely to be lonely if they: form part of an older age group; have limited educational attainment; are unemployed, retired, or otherwise not in employment; are widowed, separated, divorced, or married; live alone; have not paid off the mortgage on their dwelling; perceive their household income to be low; rate their physical health as ‘bad’; have a poor self-rated coping ability and low subjective wellbeing; and are disabled. Likewise, a person’s risk of loneliness is reduced if they: form part of a younger age group; are highly educated; are in employment; are of a single marital status; live with their parent(s) or guardian(s), have paid off the mortgage on their dwelling; perceive their household income to be adequate or high; have good or very good self-rated physical health; rate their coping ability as good or very good; have a positive self-rated subjective wellbeing; and are not disabled. Recommendations: The above findings provide the basis for a number of recommendations for research, practice and policy. Future research to periodically monitor the prevalence of loneliness amongst the Maltese population, as well as to explore the significantly associated demographic variables in greater depth, would be warranted. Policy recommendations for national and local Government include the establishment of a national loneliness strategy, addressing the rising cost of living, as well as devising initiatives to foster an improved sense of community amongst the population. Practical recommendations are also provided, including the provision of evidence-based interventions and of loneliness-specific training for professionals working with the general population., peer-reviewed

The non-medical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD), mostly psychotropic drugs, is registering an increase in prevalence worldwide, with emerging adults being considered a vulnerable group. In Malta, the evidence base for the prevalence of NMUPD is somewhat lacking, especially for this age group. This paper documents data on the prevalence of NMUPD among University of Malta (UOM) students and explores patterns of use including: age of initial use, source, motivation for use, and use of prescription drugs together with alcohol. The relationship of NMUPD with a number of socio-demographic variables is also examined. An anonymous online questionnaire distributed to the entire UOM student population was used to collect the data. Of the 347 students who completed the questionnaire, 7% reported lifetime non-medical use of opioids, 3.5% reported lifetime non-medical use of CNS depressants and 2.8% reported lifetime non-medical use of CNS stimulants. Consistent with the literature on the subject, female students reported higher engagement in NMUPD than males. The paper concludes with a number of recommendations., peer-reviewed

BACKGROUND: This research project, carried out by the Department of Gender Studies, Faculty for Social Wellbeing, University of Malta, is part of a national project entitled ‘Full Cooperation Zero Violence’ and is cofunded by the Rights, Equality and Citizenship (REC) Programme of the European Union. The project is being managed by the Human Rights and Integration Directorate within the Ministry for European Affairs and Equality., RESEARCH PURPOSE: This research attempts to identify and explore the barriers being faced by survivors of gender-based violence against women in Malta and Gozo when seeking help at the various state and voluntary services as seen from their perspective, as well as those faced by professionals when delivering a service to the survivors as seen from the professionals’ perspective., DEFINITIONS: The two central concepts in this study were ‘Violence against Women’ (VAW) and ‘Gender-Based Violence’ (GBV). The study used, and was informed by, the definitions provided by the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, also referred as the Istanbul Convention. This Convention defines “violence against women” as: ‘a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women and shall mean all acts of gender‐based violence that result in, or are likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life;’ (Article 3a). Moreover, “gender-based violence against women” is defined as: ‘violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately’. (Article 3d)., DESIGN: This study adopted a qualitative research design and the data collection strategy used included 16 qualitative interviews and six focus groups with both survivors and professionals. A total of 50 participants took part in the study - 23 survivors and 27 professionals. The interviews and focus groups were audio-recorded and transcribed; the transcripts were subjected to rigorous coding following the Constant Comparative Method. A strict adherence to the principles of research ethics was crucial given that participants included vulnerable persons. The credibility and trustworthiness of the research was ascertained mainly through a respondent validation process, data and observer triangulation and reflexivity., peer-reviewed

This paper investigates the schooling experiences of young people who pursued a criminal career and consequently became habitual offenders. The data presented are part of a larger grounded theory project on criminal career development among Maltese male youth. The narrative approach adopted in the study allows one to explore offenders’ school careers from their perspective and adopts an inductive design. While the direction of the link between schooling and juvenile delinquency remains complex and contested, exploring the role of the school in delinquent development has important implications for intervention. This paper shows how school experiences have important implications for the development of delinquent careers and are an important contingency in relation to early onset of delinquency. Participant’s negative school experiences and adjustment, engagement in truancy and labelling within the school context are some of the key themes which emerged from the students’ narratives. Although not conclusive, the data from this study implies that dissatisfaction with the educational experience combined with other contingencies, may set the stage for more serious delinquency in and out of school., peer-reviewed