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Amongst different pulses, chickpea is a cost-effective legume in managing protein malnutrition and achieving food security. Chickpea is rich in protein and body building essential amino acids. Chickpea protein isolates from both desi (K850) and kabuli (P1108) cultivars, were prepared from defatted whole seed flour by sodium hydroxide (K1, P1), after removal of polyphenol (K2, P2) and solubilisation by sodium sulphite (K3, P3). The solubilised protein was isoelectrically precipitated (pH-4.3) by HCl and then freeze-dried after washing with water. Amino acid profiling and SDS-PAGE of K1 and P1 were also performed. Proximate data show that, protein content was highest in P1108 isolates (P3) prepared by sodium sulphite (98.65%) and Water Holding Capacity was also high in P3 (395.54%). Oil Holding capacity was highest in P2 (445.62%) prepared after polyphenol removal. Effect of pH, NaCl concentration and temperature influenced solubility, emulsion activity index (EAI), emulsion stability (ES), foaming capacity (FC) and foaming stability (FS). Protein isolates had better functional properties than flour. Solubility was highest at pH 11 in P1 isolate (79.29%) and for 1% NaCl concentration the solubility in P2 was 30.06% and 77.5% at 50 °C. Both EAI and ES were highest at pH 11. Not much difference was observed in EAI at 0.1% and 1.0% NaCl concentration. FC and FS were high at pH 11 and pH 5, respectively. Kabuli isolates formed gel at 10% concentration, whereas K1 and K2 at 16%. Isolate structure was micrographed by SEM. Kabuli protein isolates had better nutritional and functional properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • A total of 923 conserved and 216 novel miRNAs were identified from chickpea root tissue. • 431 and 332 conserved miRNAs revealed differential expression in RA and drought with RA-inoculated plants, respectively. • 60 and 39 novel miRNAs were found to be differentially expressed in RA and drought with RA-inoculated plants, respectively. • 4647 and 551 genes were predicted to be the targets of conserved and novel miRNAs, respectively. • Inverse correlations in the expression patterns of miRNAs with their respective targets were observed. Abstract Pseudomonas putida strain MTCC5279 (RA) is a plant growth promoting rhizobacteria which improves growth and development of plants by colonizing their root surface and also confers drought stress tolerance. Further, along with several stress responsive genes, microRNAs are also well known for their crucial involvement in drought stress response. Considering the above, in this study, we performed identification and expression profiling of small RNAs in chickpea roots either uninoculated or inoculated with P. putida RA under drought stress through high-throughput sequencing. We identified 923 conserved and 216 novel miRNAs from all four libraries. Out of these, 431 and 332 conserved miRNAs; and 60 and 39 novel miRNAs were found to be differentially expressed in RA and drought with RA-inoculated plants, respectively. A total of 4647 and 551 target genes involved in various biological, cellular and molecular processes were predicted to be targets of conserved and novel miRNAs, respectively. Stem-loop quantitative real-time PCR analysis of selected nine miRNAs showed their expression patterns in consistence with those obtained from Illumina-sequencing. Besides, the expression patterns of miRNAs showed inverse correlation to that of their respective targets. Our results indicate that RA plays a very crucial role in regulating the expression of miRNAs and their targets during drought stress in chickpea paving the way for further characterization and utilization of miRNAs in crop improvement programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonavailability of water or dehydration remains recurring climatic disorder affecting yield of major food crops, legumes in particular. Nuclear proteins (NPs) and phosphoproteins (NPPs) execute crucial cellular functions that form the regulatory hub for coordinated stress response. Phosphoproteins hold enormous influence over cellular signalling. Four‐week‐old seedlings of a grain legume, chickpea, were subjected to gradual dehydration, and NPs were extracted from unstressed control and from 72‐ and 144‐hr stressed tissues. We identified 4,832 NPs and 478 phosphosites, corresponding to 299 unique NPPs involved in multivariate cellular processes including protein modification and gene expression regulation, among others. The identified proteins included several novel kinases, phosphatases, and transcription factors, besides 660 uncharacterized proteins. Spliceosome complex and splicing related proteins were dominant among differentially regulated NPPs, indicating their dehydration modulated regulation. Phospho‐motif analysis revealed stress‐induced enrichment of proline‐directed serine phosphorylation. Association mapping of NPPs revealed predominance of differential phosphorylation of spliceosome and splicing associated proteins. Also, regulatory proteins of key processes viz., protein degradation, regulation of flowering time, and circadian clock were observed to undergo dehydration‐induced dephosphorylation. The characterization of novel regulatory proteins would provide new insights into stress adaptation and enable directed genetic manipulations for developing climate‐resilient crops. Phosphorylation acts as a molecular switch regulating the activities of signal transducers and downstream target proteins involved in a wide range of cellular processes. The nucleus holds regulatory information for most of the cellular functions. We report here an integrated view of the pathways activated by dehydration involving nuclear proteins and phosphoproteins and highlight phosphorylation‐mediated regulation of several key components. This work is the first application of quantitative phosphoproteomics to analyse stress‐induced global phosphorylation events of nuclear proteins in a legume. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the genetic basis of photosynthetic efficiency (PE) contributing to enhanced seed yield per plant (SYP) is vital for genomics‐assisted crop improvement of chickpea. The current study employed an integrated genomic strategy involving photosynthesis pathway gene‐based association mapping, genome‐wide association study, quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, and expression profiling. This identified 16 potential single nucleotide polymorphism loci linked to major QTLs underlying 16 candidate genes significantly associated with PE and SYP traits in chickpea. The allelic variants were tightly linked to positively interacting QTLs regulating both enhanced PE and SYP traits as exemplified by a chlorophyll A‐B binding protein‐coding gene. The leaf tissue‐specific pronounced up‐regulated expression of 16 associated genes in germplasm accessions and homozygous individuals of mapping population was evident. Such combinatorial genomic strategy coupled with gene haplotype‐specific association and in silico protein–protein interaction study delineated natural alleles and superior haplotypes from a chlorophyll A‐B binding (CAB) protein‐coding gene and its interacting gene, Timing of CAB Expression 1 (TOC1), which appear to be most promising candidates in modulating chickpea PE and SYP traits. These functionally pertinent molecular signatures identified have efficacy to drive marker‐assisted selection for developing PE‐enriched cultivars with high seed yield in chickpea. The photosynthetic efficiency of a crop contributes immensely to its ultimate yield and productivity. The present study aimed at identification of functionally relevant genetic factors for efficient dissection of photosynthetic efficiency and seed yield traits through integrated genomics‐assisted breeding strategies in chickpea. Natural allelic variants and superior haplotypes delineated from a chlorophyll A‐B binding protein‐coding gene and its interacting gene, Timing of CAB Expression 1, come up as the most potential candidates to enhance both photosynthetic efficiency and seed yield of chickpea. The salient outcomes can essentially drive translational genomic analysis to develop photosynthetically efficient high‐yielding cultivars in chickpea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic improvement for drought tolerance in chickpea requires a solid understanding of biochemical processes involved with different physiological mechanisms. The objective of this study is to demonstrate genetic variations in altered metabolic levels in chickpea varieties (tolerant and sensitive) grown under contrasting water regimes through ultrahigh‐performance liquid chromatography/high‐resolution mass spectrometry‐based untargeted metabolomic profiling. Chickpea plants were exposed to drought stress at the 3‐leaf stage for 25 days, and the leaves were harvested at 14 and 25 days after the imposition of drought stress. Stress produced significant reduction in chlorophyll content, Fv/Fm, relative water content, and shoot and root dry weight. Twenty known metabolites were identified as most important by 2 different methods including significant analysis of metabolites and partial least squares discriminant analysis. The most pronounced increase in accumulation due to drought stress was demonstrated for allantoin, l‐proline, l‐arginine, l‐histidine, l‐isoleucine, and tryptophan. Metabolites that showed a decreased level of accumulation under drought conditions were choline, phenylalanine, gamma‐aminobutyric acid, alanine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, glucosamine, guanine, and aspartic acid. Aminoacyl‐tRNA and plant secondary metabolite biosynthesis and amino acid metabolism or synthesis pathways were involved in producing genetic variation under drought conditions. Metabolic changes in light of drought conditions highlighted pools of metabolites that affect the metabolic and physiological adjustment in chickpea that reduced drought impacts. Drought stress is one of the major problems in chickpea‐growing areas. Though drought stress changes biochemical mechanisms in plants, however, little is known about the complex metabolic regulation for genetic improvement in chickpea under drought stress environments. This study was conducted to identify changes at different metabolites in two chickpea varieties contrasting for drought tolerance under drought and control conditions. This study also demonstrates the metabolic pathways potentially involved in drought tolerance mechanisms in chickpea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During soil waterlogging, plants experience O2 deficits, elevated ethylene, and high CO2 in the root‐zone. The effects on chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and faba bean (Vicia faba L.) of ethylene (2 μL L−1), CO2 (2–20% v/v) or deoxygenated stagnant solution were evaluated. Ethylene and high CO2 reduced root growth of both species, but O2 deficiency had the most damaging effect and especially so for chickpea. Chickpea suffered root tip death when in deoxygenated stagnant solution. High CO2 inhibited root respiration and reduced growth, whereas sugars accumulated in root tips, of both species. Gas‐filled porosity of the basal portion of the primary root of faba bean (23%, v/v) was greater than for chickpea (10%), and internal O2 movement was more prominent in faba bean when in an O2‐free medium. Ethylene treatment increased the porosity of roots. The damaging effects of low O2, such as death of root tips, resulted in poor recovery of root growth upon reaeration. In conclusion, ethylene and high CO2 partially inhibited root extension in both species, but low O2 in deoxygenated stagnant solution had the most damaging effect, even causing death of root tips in chickpea, which was more sensitive to the low O2 condition than faba bean. Roots in waterlogged soil can experience O2 deficits, elevated ethylene, and high CO2. Faba bean was more tolerant than chickpea, to growth in stagnant deoxygenated nutrient solution, as the gas‐filled porosity and internal O2 movement were greater in the roots of faba bean than in chickpea. Ethylene (2 μL L−1) and high CO2 (2–20% v/v) each reduced root growth of both species, and high CO2 inhibited root respiration. Thus, ethylene and high CO2 can partially inhibit root growth, but low O2 had the most damaging effect on the roots of these cool‐season grain legume species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An experiment was conducted to study the spectrum of genetic variation for seed yield per plant and its component traits in the four selection procedures [PS(EF), PS(HY), SSD and RBP] each with 20 progenies in GJG 0315 x ICCV 96029 in F5 generation in Desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Analysis of variance revealed significant genotypic differences for all the characters with wide range of variation. Out of the total 6 cases studied in F5, PS(EF) in 2 cases; SSD in 3 cases sand PS(HY) in 1 case were better for depicting the widest phenotypic range and maximum coefficient of range, irrespective of characters. Moderate to high heritability and genotypic co-efficient of variation coupled with high expected genetic advance as per cent of mean was observed for number of branches per plant by PS(HY) and RBP and for 100-seed weight in PS(EF), PS(HY) and SSD of this cross which indicated the predominant role of additive gene action in the expression of these traits in respective breeding schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpeas are often grown under receding soil moisture and suffer ~50% yield losses due to drought stress. The timing of soil water use is considered critical for the efficient use of water under drought and to reduce yield losses. Therefore the root growth and the soil water uptake of 12 chickpea genotypes known for contrasts in drought and rooting response were monitored throughout the growth period both under drought and optimal irrigation. Root distribution reduced in the surface and increased in the deep soil layers below 30 cmin response to drought. Soil water uptake was the maximum at 45-60 cm soil depth under drought whereas it was the maximum at shallower (15--30 and 30--45 cm) soil depths when irrigated. The total water uptake under drought was 1-fold less than optimal irrigation. The amount of water left unused remained the same acrosswatering regimes. All the drought sensitive chickpea genotypes were inferior in root distribution and soil water uptake but the timing of water uptake varied among drought tolerant genotypes. Superiority in water uptake in most stages and the total water use determined the best adaptation. The water use at 15--30 cm soil depth ensured greater uptake from lower depths and the soil water use from 90--120 cm soil was critical for best drought adaptation. Root length density and the soil water uptake across soil depthswere closely associated except at the surface or the ultimate soil depths of root presence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports a protocol for plant regeneration from cultured explants of chickpea Cicer arietinum L. via direct organogenesis using decapitated embryonic axes explants. Morphologically normal healthy plants were regenerated directly without an intervening callus phase from the explants. Explants prepared from overnight soaked seeds were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium fortified with different concentrations of benzylaminopurine (BAP), indolbutyric acid (IBA) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). The type and concentration of plant growth regulators influenced the frequency of multiple shoot regeneration. 2 mg/L BAP and 0.05mg/L IBA was the most effective combination for high frequency multiple shoot induction. Individual shoots produced were aseptically excised and sub cultured in the media fortified with 1 mg/L GA3 for shoot elongation. The elongated shoots were grafted on the rootstocks prepared from the seeds of the same cultivar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To study the effect of paper industrial effluent on chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) along with different concentration (10%, 20% 40%, 60% 80% and 100%) and pure tape water as a control to compare the effect of paper industrial effluent for 7 days. Physico-chemical characteristics of paper effluent were analyzed in terms of pH, colour, order temperature, DO, BOD, COD, Total hardness, carbonated hardness. All the parameters were found to be higher than the WHO prescribed discharge limits for effluent. The amount of carbohydrate, protein and reducing sugar were comparable with control, their amount were increased at 40% in effluent treated seeds. The chlorophyll content was increased simultaneously with effluent concentration. From this study it is clear that the industrial effluent rich in organic matter and plant nutrients are finding their use in agriculture as cheaper way of disposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aquaporins (AQPs) are essential membrane proteins that play critical role in the transport of water and many other solutes across cell membranes. In this study, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis identified 40 AQP genes in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). A complete overview of the chickpea AQP (CaAQP) gene family is presented, including their chromosomal locations, gene structure, phylogeny, gene duplication, conserved functional motifs, gene expression, and conserved promoter motifs. To understand AQP's evolution, a comparative analysis of chickpea AQPs with AQP orthologs from soybean, Medicago, common bean, and Arabidopsis was performed. The chickpea AQP genes were found on all of the chickpea chromosomes, except chromosome 7, with a maximum of six genes on chromosome 6, and a minimum of one gene on chromosome 5. Gene duplication analysis indicated that the expansion of chickpea AQP gene family might have been due to segmental and tandem duplications. CaAQPs were grouped into four subfamilies including 15 NOD26-like intrinsic proteins (NIPs), 13 tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), eight plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs), and four small basic intrinsic proteins (SIPs) based on sequence similarities and phylogenetic position. Gene structure analysis revealed a highly conserved exon-intron pattern within CaAQP subfamilies supporting the CaAQP family classification. Functional prediction based on conserved Ar/R selectivity filters, Froger's residues, and specificity-determining positions suggested wide differences in substrate specificity among the subfamilies of CaAQPs. Expression analysis of the AQP genes indicated that some of the genes are tissue-specific, whereas few other AQP genes showed differential expression in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Promoter profiling of CaAQP genes for conserved cis-acting regulatory elements revealed enrichment of cis-elements involved in circadian control, light response, defense and stress responsiveness reflecting their varying pattern of gene expression and potential involvement in biotic and abiotic stress responses. The current study presents the first detailed genome-wide analysis of the AQP gene family in chickpea and provides valuable information for further functional analysis to infer the role of AQP in the adaptation of chickpea in diverse environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three recombinant inbred populations (RIP-1, RIP-7 and RIP-10) were used to validate and saturate the target area involved in the resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris race 0 (Foc0) in chickpeas. With the aim of physically localizing the genetic area controlling Foc0 resistance, a new genetic map of the linkage group 5 (LG5) and a physical map of the Ca5 pseudomolecule were drawn up and compared. The genetic and physical between CaGM20820 and CaGM20889 (16759541-17501349 bp) within an interval of 2 cM comprising 27 annotated genes. Only two of the annotated genes in this region could mapping results obtained were useful to refine the position of the target area be involved in resistance mechanisms. The three RIPs were used to develop three pairs of near isogenic lines (NILs) for resistance/susceptibility to Foc0. NILs are a valuable tool for fine mapping, refining the target region and selecting candidate genes for resistance to Foc0. The information reported in this paper will help develop diagnostic markers, considered useful tools for MAS in chickpea breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was evaluated to test the potential of plant growth-promoting actinobacteria in increasing seed mineral density of chickpea under field conditions. Among the 19 isolates of actinobacteria tested, significant ( p < 0.05) increase of minerals over the uninoculated control treatments was noticed on all the isolates for Fe (10-38 %), 17 for Zn (13-30 %), 16 for Ca (14-26 %), 9 for Cu (11-54 %) and 10 for Mn (18-35 %) and Mg (14-21 %). The increase might be due to the production of siderophore-producing capacity of the tested actinobacteria, which was confirmed in our previous studies by q-RT PCR on siderophore genes expressing up to 1.4- to 25-fold increased relative transcription levels. The chickpea seeds were subjected to processing to increase the mineral availability during consumption. The processed seeds were found to meet the recommended daily intake of FDA by 24-28 % for Fe, 25-28 % for Zn, 28-35 % for Cu, 12-14 % for Ca, 160-167 % for Mn and 34-37 % for Mg. It is suggested that the microbial inoculum can serve as a complementary sustainable tool for the existing biofortification strategies and substantially reduce the chemical fertilizer inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The symbiosis of chickpea-mesorhizobia is often affected by various constraints abiotic in particular the salinity and phosphate deficiency. Thirty six of native rhizobial strains from southern Morocco were studied. The results showed that most of isolated rhizobia have capacity solubilize inorganic phosphate (TCP) in the PVK and NBRIP medium. By comparing the halo zone of these strains, it was observed that mesorhizobia has strong PS activity and therefore classified as PSB. Only one strain MC0415 have capacity to solubilize inorganic and organic (pNPP), whereas 1.66% of the strains were able to survive under conditions of strong salinity (520mM). This work determined the percentage of mesorhizobia isolated having capacity to survive in conditions of phosphate deficiency, salinity and pH [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The insertion of leguminous crops into temperate and Mediterranean agroforestry systems where few di-nitrogen-fixing trees can grow is attempted to improve soil N fertility. However, as the microenvironment created by trees could affect plant development, rates of legume growth and biological nitrogen fixation may prove inadequate. In this study, we analyze the nitrogen benefits of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) grown in rainfed conditions as a sole crop (SC) or in the alleys of a 15-year old hybrid walnut-based agroforestry system (AF). The fate of N derived from biological fixation by chickpea was assessed with theN natural abundance method and the amount of N released from roots into the soil by rhizodeposition was quantified for the 0-30 cm horizon using theN cotton-wick labeling method. The measurements were made in the middle of the crop alley, where the total cumulative radiation received by plants was 90 % of full sunlight, so as to focus on N cycling. The total plant N was 33 % higher in AF than in SC whereas plants had similar N concentrations in vegetative above-ground parts and roots in AF and in SC. This difference was due to a very high N concentration in grains and to twice as much seed biomass in AF plants as in SC ones. The percentage of plant N fixed from the atmosphere by chickpea plants grown in AF was half that in SC. The N rhizodeposition was 47.2 ± 10.2 mg plant and 60.4 ± 15.3 for SC and AF respectively. Considering the chickpea plant density, we estimated the nitrogen soil supply to chickpea at 2.2 and 28.2 kg N ha for SC and AF respectively. In conclusion, our results showed that environmental conditions in the middle of the AF crop alley were beneficial for chickpea growth, seed biomass and quality of the seed, probably because of the combination of a higher mineral N availability (higher N turnover) due to better conditions for organic nitrogen mineralization, created by the trees. The organic matter status and water balance modification after 15 years of agroforestry may increase nutrient availability, even for legumes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present work,Cicer arietinumhusk (Bengal gram husk BGH) has efficiently been utilized for the removal of Cd(II) and Cu(II) from aqueous solutions. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and proximate analysis were used to analyse the biosorbent. Batch experiments were conducted to analyse as well as to evaluate the sorption capacity of metal ions. Factors affecting metal ions adsorption, such as contact time, pH, concentration ranges and adsorbent doses were studied. Maximum sorption of Cu(II) was found at pH 5, while for Cd(II), it was achieved at pH 7. From FTIR and NMR results, it has been found that in BGH, –OH group was present in abundance, and participated in metal complex formation in the sorption experiments. The biosorption process was fast enough because equilibrium reached at 120 min, following pseudo-second-order kinetics. The biosorption data fitted well in the Langmuir isotherm model, indicating the monolayer sorption. The maximum biosorption capacity of BGH, using Langmuir adsorption plots has been determined as 8.58 and 9.70 mg g−1for Cd(II) and Cu(II), respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Key message: CarNAC4 is a typical stress-responsive NAC transcription factor and enhances drought and salt stress tolerances in transgenic Arabidopsis. Abstract: Chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) is relatively vulnerable to abiotic stress conditions, but the tolerance mechanisms for such stresses in chickpea are largely unknown. To identify stress-related factors in chickpea, we previously constructed a cDNA library of chickpea leaves exposed to drought stress conditions. A cDNA encoding a putative NAC transcription factor ( CarNAC4) was identified as a putative stress-responsive gene. Our study indicated that the transcript levels of CarNAC4 were enhanced in response to several abiotic stresses and phytohormones. Promoter analysis demonstrated that multiple stress-related cis-acting elements exist in promoter region of CarNAC4. CarNAC4 is localized in the nucleus and binds to the DNA sequence containing CGT[G/A], while the C-terminal region of CarNAC4 contains a transcriptional activation domain. Over-expression of CarNAC4 in Arabidopsis plants improved tolerance to drought and salt stresses. Transgenic plants exhibited greater reduced rates of water loss and more proline accumulation than Col- 0 plants under drought stress and less MDA contents than Col- 0 plants under salt stress. In addition, over-expression of CarNAC4 enhanced the expression of stress-responsive genes such as RD29A, ERD10, COR15A, COR47, KIN1 and DREB2A. These results indicated that CarNAC4 functions as a transcription factor involved in the regulation of drought and salt stress response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The linear and volumetric expansion of chickpea seeds during water absorption at 20, 30, 50, 70, 85 and 100°C was studied. Length, width and thickness of chickpea seeds linearly increased with the increase in moisture content at all temperatures studied, where the greatest increase was found in length. Two different mathematical approaches were used for the determination of the expansion coefficients. The plots of the both linear and volumetric expansion coefficients versus temperature exhibited two linear lines, the first one was through 20, 30 and 50°C and the second one was trough 70, 85 and 100°C. The crossing point (58°C) of these lines was very close to the gelatinisation temperature (60°C) of chickpea starch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort to obtain reliable, alkali-tolerant, and symbiotically efficient rhizobial strains, 54 indigenous rhizobial isolates were obtained from root nodules of chickpea grown in alkaline soil of 5 different agricultural locations in North-West Indo Gangetic Plains (NW-IGP). Of these, 16 most symbiotically effective isolates were selected for polyphasic analysis (pH stress, salt tolerance, and genetic characterization). All the selected isolates were able to tolerate the high alkaline pH. Among them, CPN1, CPN8, and CPN32 grew well at pH 11.0. High pH-induced proteins were explored by SDS-PAGE assay. Identification and genetic characterization of isolates was done by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, RNA polymerase subunit-B (rpoB) and symbiotic genes (nodC and nifH). The study revealed diverse symbiotically efficient alkalotolerant chickpea nodulating rhizobial strains from NW-IGP. This study has thus contributed a valuable genetic pool of isolates that can potentially be used to increase chickpea production in these soil types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) roots exude carboxylates. While chickpea commonly grows where the topsoil dries out during crop growth, the importance of carboxylate exudation by the roots and mobilization of soil P from below the dry topsoil has not been examined. The study investigates the response of carboxylate exudation and soil P mobilization by this crop to subsoil P fertilizer rate. In constructed soil columns in the glasshouse, the P levels (high, low, and nil P) were varied in the well-watered subsoil (10–30 cm), while a low level of P in the dry topsoil (0–10 cm) was maintained. At flowering, rhizosphere carboxylates and rhizosphere soil from topsoil and subsoil roots were collected separately and analyzed. The concentration of total carboxylates per unit rhizosphere mass in the subsoil was nearly double that of the topsoil. Plants depleted sparingly soluble inorganic P (Pi), NaOH-P(Pi, and HCl-Pi, along with the labile Pi (water soluble and NaHCO3-Pi). The P depletion by plants was greater from the subsoil than the topsoil. The study concluded that depletion of sparingly soluble P from the chickpea rhizosphere in the subsoil was linked with the greater levels of carboxylates in the rhizosphere. These findings indicate that chickpea, with its deep rooting pattern, can increase its access to subsoil P when the topsoil dries out during crop growth by subsoil rhizosphere modification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study identified 9045 high-quality SNPs employing both genome-wide GBS- and candidate gene-based SNP genotyping assays in 172, including 93 cultivated (desi and kabuli) and 79 wild chickpea accessions. The GWAS in a structured population of 93 sequenced accessions detected 15 major genomic loci exhibiting significant association with seed coat color. Five seed color-associated major genomic loci underlying robust QTLs mapped on a high-density intra-specific genetic linkage map were validated by QTL mapping. The integration of association and QTL mapping with gene haplotype-specific LD mapping and transcript profiling identified novel allelic variants (non-synonymous SNPs) and haplotypes in a MATE secondary transporter gene regulating light/yellow brown and beige seed coat color differentiation in chickpea. The down-regulation and decreased transcript expression of beige seed coat color-associated MATE gene haplotype was correlated with reduced proanthocyanidins accumulation in the mature seed coats of beige than light/yellow brown seed colored desi and kabuli accessions for their coloration/pigmentation. This seed color-regulating MATE gene revealed strong purifying selection pressure primarily in LB/YB seed colored desi and wild Cicer reticulatum accessions compared with the BE seed colored kabuli accessions. The functionally relevant molecular tags identified have potential to decipher the complex transcriptional regulatory gene function of seed coat coloration and for understanding the selective sweep-based seed color trait evolutionary pattern in cultivated and wild accessions during chickpea domestication. The genome-wide integrated approach employed will expedite marker-assisted genetic enhancement for developing cultivars with desirable seed coat color types in chickpea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of processing and storage on antioxidant components and their in vitro bioaccessibility in chickpea and amaranth greens mix prepared with decorticated chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and green leaves of amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) was investigated in this study. Food mix was cooked and stored under frozen storage (wet form) or under refrigeration and at room temperature (dehydrated form) and analyzed. Polyphenol (PP), tannin (TN) and flavonoid (FL) contents of food mix pre- and post- dehydration were ranged from 253-341, 357-364 and 35-48mg/100g dry weight respectively. Higher values were observed for PP and FN in dehydrated mix and for TN, total and β-carotene in fresh mix. The bioaccessibility of antioxidant components did not change significantly during frozen storage. The dehydrated mix showed higher reduction in digestibility of PP than fresh sample. Antioxidant components were retained in dehydrated mix. Frozen storage preserved higher antioxidant components in the chickpea+amaranth mix than storage at higher temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paucity of sequence information flanking the simple sequence repeat (SSR) motifs identified especially in the transcript sequences has been limiting factor in the development of SSR markers for plant genome analysis as well as breeding applications. To overcome this and enhance the genic SSR marker repertoire in chickpea, the draft genome sequence of kabuli chickpea (CDC Frontier) and publicly available transcript sequences consisting of in silico identified SSR motifs were deployed in the present study. In this direction, the 300 bp sequence flanking the SSR motifs were retrieved by aligning 566 SSR containing transcripts of ICCV 2 available in public domain on the reference chickpea genome. A set of 202 novel genic SSRs were developed from a set of 507 primer pairs designed, based on in silico amplification of single locus and having no similarity to the publicly available SSR markers. Further, 40 genic SSRs equally distributed on chickpea genome were validated on a select set of 44 chickpea genotypes (including 41 Cicer arietinum and 3 Cicer reticulatum), out of which 25 were reported to be polymorphic. The polymorphism information content (PIC) value of 25 polymorphic genic SSRs ranged from 0.11 to 0.77 and number of alleles varied from 2 to 9. Clear demarcation among founder lines of multi-parent advanced generation inter-cross (MAGIC) population developed at ICRISAT and near-isogenic nature of JG 11 and JG11 + demonstrates the usefulness of these markers in chickpea diversity analysis and breeding studies. Further, genic polymorphic SSRs reported between parental lines of 16 different mapping populations along with the novel SSRs can be deployed for trait mapping and breeding applications in chickpea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malnutrition is the cause of the majority of deaths in children under five years old in Ethiopia. Micronutrient deficiencies such as iron, zinc and calcium, often seen in malnourished children, are major public health problems throughout Ethiopia. These deficiencies have negative consequences on the cognitive and physical development of children, and on work productivity of adults. There is, therefore, a need for sustainable methods to address iron inadequacy in complementary feeding. Animal products are a good source of iron, zinc and calcium, but due to their high costs, their consumption by most children in Ethiopia has declined. The grain amaranth grows wild in areas of Ethiopia but is considered a weed. This study, conducted in rural Ethiopia, was initiated to prepare nutrient-rich complementary food using recipes that substituted the usual maize gruel with porridge made from amaranth and chickpea flours. Using a laboratory based experimental study design, four porridges suitable for complementary feeding, with different proportions of amaranth grains, maize and chickpeas were formulated in triplicate and analyzed in triplicate for minerals including iron, and phytate levels. Mother-child pairs were recruited for acceptability testing, at the community level. Results showed adding amaranth improved the content of iron and other nutrients as compared to control porridge (100% maize) and decreased phytate levels. The lowest phytate to iron ratio (0.24) was observed in the 70% amaranth and 30% chickpea blend, and the lowest viscosity measure was also observed in this same formulation. Soaking amaranth seeds in warm (50oC) water then germinating in lemon juice-containing water at 32oC for 72 hours resulted in the lowest phytate levels. In sensory testing, all of the formulated porridges with different proportions of amaranth flour were acceptable to mothers and their children, although the red color was disliked by mothers and their children. Flavor preference was not altered; however, overall acceptability was reduced with increasing amounts of amaranth. The study indicated that a processed 70% amaranth and 30% chickpea product can be used to produce low-cost, nutrient-rich complementary food with moderate acceptability. Increased nutritional awareness, production and consumption of grain amaranth products may be the way to address mineral deficiencies including iron, in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field experiment conducted during 2012-13 and 2013-14 at Gadag, Karnataka, India to study on-farm response of maize (Zea mays)-chickpea (Cicer arietinum) cropping system to fertilizers NPK input revealed that application of 150 kg N, 75 kg P2O5, 37.5 kg K2O and 25 kg ZnSO4/ha to maize and 25 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 15 kg ZnSO4/ha to chickpea recorded significantly higher grain and stover/haulm yields. Maize-grain equivalent yield, net returns, benefit: cost ratio and total NPK uptake by maize-wheat cropping system (203.14 kg/ha) were recorded over rest of the treatments. This treatment also recorded the maximum production efficiency (88.80 kg/ha/day) and nitrogen use efficiency (35.20 kg/kg) in maize and 49.36 kg/kg in chickpea. Response studies indicated that maximum response was noted with NPK+ZnSO4 in maize (12.89 kg/kg) and NPK in chickpea (7.73 kg/kg). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proteins have been used to produce capsules and shell materials for food applications. The use of protein in food applications is beneficial from the point of view of biocompatibility, non-toxicity as well as nutritional advantage. The procedures used for the preparation of protein capsules have yielded micro sized encapsulates. This study reports a simple method to produce a protein microencapsulate for carrying nutrients such as vitamins in food preparations. The protein used in this study was isolated from chickpeas. Based on the amphoteric property of the protein, folate (vitamin B9) was encapsulated efficiently from a homogenous protein folate solution mixture, by acidification to the isoelectric point of the protein to obtain the microencapsulate. This yielded a free flowing powder after freeze drying. The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity were calculated to be 62.19 ± 2.05% and 10.18 ± 0.89%, respectively. The release of the folate was monitored at pH values ranging from 2 to 8. In all cases gradual release was observed. Encapsulation imparted greater stability to folate relative to unencapsulated folate. Therefore protein encapsulation is beneficial for improving the stability of folate in processed food items. This simple method for production of protein microencapsulate can be used to prepare various types of nutriment and drug encapsulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finger millet, QPM, Bengal gram and soybean were blended in different proportions to prepare low cost and nutritious read to eat snack. The product is similar to 'sattu' a traditional snack of North India. Product developed was analyzed for sensory evaluation, chemical composition and shelf-life. Chemical analysis of the products revealed that protein, fat, ash and fiber content of the treatment ready mixes varied from 18.25 - 19.92%, 6.15 - 6.89%, 2.84 - 3.03% and 2.30 - 3.16%. respectively. Micro nutrient profile of treatment ready mixes were found superior. Shelf- life studies indicated that treatment ready mixes could be safely stored in metallic containers up to 45 days during summer season. Results of sensory evaluation showed that finger millet fortified up to 40% were well accepted [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flowering time and crop duration are the most important traits for adaptation of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) to different agro-climatic conditions. Early flowering and early maturity enhance adaptation of chickpea to short season environments. This study was conducted to establish allelic relationships of the early flowering genes of ICC 16641, ICC 16644 and ICCV 96029 with three known early flowering genes, efl- 1 (ICCV 2), ppd or efl- 2 (ICC 5810), and efl- 3 (BGD 132). In all cases, late flowering was dominant to early-flowering. The results indicated that the efl- 1 gene identified from ICCV 2 was also present in ICCV 96029, which has ICCV 2 as one of the parents in its pedigree. ICC 16641 and ICC 16644 had a common early flowering gene which was not allelic to other reported early flowering genes. The new early flowering gene was designated efl- 4. In most of the crosses, days to flowering was positively correlated with days to maturity, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant and seed yield per plant and negatively correlated or had no correlation with 100-seed weight. The double-pod trait improved grain yield per plant in the crosses where it delayed maturity. The information on allelic relationships of early flowering genes and their effects on yield and yield components will be useful in chickpea breeding for desired phenology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Development and an integrated utilization of genome-wide conserved non-coding microsatellite (CNMS) markers in genetical genomics for quantitative dissection of seed weight in chickpea are described.Phylogenetic footprinting identified 666 genome-wide paralogous and orthologous CNMS (conserved non-coding microsatellite) markers from 5′-untranslated and regulatory regions (URRs) of 603 protein-coding chickpea genes. The (CT)n and (GA)n CNMS carrying CTRMCAMV35S and GAGA8BKN3 regulatory elements, respectively, are abundant in the chickpea genome. The mapped genic CNMS markers with robust amplification efficiencies (94.7%) detected higher intraspecific polymorphic potential (37.6%) among genotypes, implying their immense utility in chickpea breeding and genetic analyses. Seventeen differentially expressed CNMS marker-associated genes showing strong preferential and seed tissue/developmental stage-specific expression in contrasting genotypes were selected to narrow down the gene targets underlying seed weight quantitative trait loci (QTLs)/eQTLs (expression QTLs) through integrative genetical genomics. The integration of transcript profiling with seed weight QTL/eQTL mapping, molecular haplotyping, and association analyses identified potential molecular tags (GAGA8BKN3 and RAV1AAT regulatory elements and alleles/haplotypes) in the LOB-domain-containing protein- and KANADI protein-encoding transcription factor genes controlling the cis-regulated expression for seed weight in the chickpea. This emphasizes the potential of CNMS marker-based integrative genetical genomics for the quantitative genetic dissection of complex seed weight in chickpea. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The genome-wide discovery and high-throughput genotyping of SNPs in chickpea natural germplasm lines is indispensable to extrapolate their natural allelic diversity, domestication, and linkage disequilibrium (LD) patterns leading to the genetic enhancement of this vital legume crop. We discovered 44,844 high-quality SNPs by sequencing of 93 diverse cultivated desi, kabuli, and wild chickpea accessions using reference genome- and de novo-based GBS (genotyping-by-sequencing) assays that were physically mapped across eight chromosomes of desi and kabuli. Of these, 22,542 SNPs were structurally annotated in different coding and non-coding sequence components of genes. Genes with 3296 non-synonymous and 269 regulatory SNPs could functionally differentiate accessions based on their contrasting agronomic traits. A high experimental validation success rate (92%) and reproducibility (100%) along with strong sensitivity (93-96%) and specificity (99%) of GBS-based SNPs was observed. This infers the robustness of GBS as a high-throughput assay for rapid large-scale mining and genotyping of genome-wide SNPs in chickpea with sub-optimal use of resources. With 23,798 genome-wide SNPs, a relatively high intra-specific polymorphic potential (49.5%) and broader molecular diversity (13-89%)/functional allelic diversity (18-77%) was apparent among 93 chickpea accessions, suggesting their tremendous applicability in rapid selection of desirable diverse accessions/inter-specific hybrids in chickpea crossbred varietal improvement program. The genome-wide SNPs revealed complex admixed domestication pattern, extensive LD estimates (0.54-0.68) and extended LD decay (400-500 kb) in a structured population inclusive of 93 accessions. These findings reflect the utility of our identified SNPs for subsequent genome-wide association study (GWAS) and selective sweep-based domestication trait dissection analysis to identify potential genomic loci (gene-associated targets) specifically regulating important complex quantitative agronomic traits in chickpea. The numerous informative genome-wide SNPs, natural allelic diversity-led domestication pattern, and LD-based information generated in our study have got multidimensional applicability with respect to chickpea genomics-assisted breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key message: We demonstrate the role of DREB1A transcription factor in better root and shoot partitioning and higher transpiration efficiency in transgenic chickpea under drought stress Abstract: Chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.) is mostly exposed to terminal drought stress which adversely influences its yield. Development of cultivars for suitable drought environments can offer sustainable solutions. We genetically engineered a desi-type chickpea variety to ectopically overexpress AtDREB1A, a transcription factor known to be involved in abiotic stress response, driven by the stress-inducible Atrd29A promoter. From several transgenic events of chickpea developed by Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation, four single copy events (RD2, RD7, RD9 and RD10) were characterized for DREB1A gene overexpression and evaluated under water stress in a biosafety greenhouse at T6 generation. Under progressive water stress, all transgenic events showed increased DREB1A gene expression before 50 % of soil moisture was lost (50 % FTSW or fraction of transpirable soil water), with a faster DREB1A transcript accumulation in RD2 at 85 % FTSW. Compared to the untransformed control, RD2 reduced its transpiration in drier soil and higher vapor pressure deficit (VPD) range (2.0-3.4 kPa). The assessment of terminal water stress response using lysimetric system that closely mimics the soil conditions in the field, showed that transgenic events RD7 and RD10 had increased biomass partitioning into shoot, denser rooting in deeper layers of soil profile and higher transpiration efficiency than the untransformed control. Also, RD9 with deeper roots and RD10 with higher root diameter showed that the transgenic events had altered rooting pattern compared to the untransformed control. These results indicate the implicit influence of rd29A::DREB1A on mechanisms underlying water uptake, stomatal response, transpiration efficiency and rooting architecture in water-stressed plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: Chickpea rhizobia did not occur naturally in Australian cropping soils, necessitating inoculation at sowing. Now, after more than 30 years of chickpea cultivation using a single inoculant strain, CC1192, it is likely that chickpea rhizobia are established in 1.0-1.5 Mha cropping land. The aims of this study were to examine effects of the naturalised chickpea rhizobia on nodulation and productivity (total crop N, crop N fixed and grain yield) of commercial chickpea. Methods: Soil was sampled from 26 fields to estimate chickpea rhizobial numbers, relate numbers to edaphic factors and years since previous chickpea crop, determine the proportions of CC1192 and novel strains using RAPD-PCR and subject a subset of novel strains from one site to 16S rRNA analysis. Nodules were harvested from 15 inoculated, commercial chickpea crops to determine occupancy by CC1192. The symbiotic effectiveness of a second subset of novel strains was assessed. Results: The mean number of rhizobia in the soils varied from log 0.08 to log 5.16 rhizobia g soil with population size positively correlated with soil moisture content and negatively correlated with salt concentration (EC). RAPD-PCR analysis of 570 strains of chickpea rhizobia isolated from the soils indicated only 14 % with molecular fingerprints similar to CC1192. Occupancy by CC1192 of nodules harvested from commercial crops ranged 0-100 %, with an average of 53 %. Occupancy by CC1192 declined by an average 17 % with each log unit increase in numbers of novel chickpea rhizobia. Conclusions: We found no evidence that the novel mesorhizobia in the chickpea soils compromised N fixation or productivity of commercial chickpea crops, even though individual strains had generally reduced symbiotic effectiveness relative to CC1192. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris (Foc), the causal agent of Fusarium wilt is a devastating pathogen of chickpea. In chickpea, various soil borne pathogens produce (s) similar symptoms, therefore cannot be distinguished easily at field level. There is real need for a rapid, inexpensive, and easy to operate and maintain genotyping tool to facilitate accurate disease diagnosis and surveillance for better management of Fusarium wilt outbreaks. Results: In this study, we developed a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay targeting the elongation factor 1 alpha gene sequence for visual detection of Foc. The LAMP reaction was optimal at 63°C for 60 min. When hydroxynaphthol blue (HNB) was added before amplification, samples with Foc DNA developed a characteristic sky blue colour but those without DNA or with the DNA of six other plant pathogenic fungi did not. Results obtained with LAMP and HNB were confirmed when LAMP products were subjected to gel electrophoresis. The detection limit of this LAMP assay for Foc was 10 fg of genomic DNA per reaction, while that of conventional PCR was 100 pg. Conclusions: In conclusion, it was found that a LAMP assay combined with HNB is simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific. The LAMP assay does not require specialized equipment, hence can be used in the field for the rapid detection of Foc. This is the first report of the use of LAMP assay for the detection of Foc. The presented LAMP method provides a specific, sensitive and rapid diagnostic tool for the distinction of Foc, with the potential to be standardized as a detection method for Foc in endemic areas and will be very useful for monitoring the disease complex in the field further suggesting the management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The F-box genes constitute one of the largest gene families in plants involved in degradation of cellular proteins. F-box proteins can recognize a wide array of substrates and regulate many important biological processes such as embryogenesis, floral development, plant growth and development, biotic and abiotic stress, hormonal responses and senescence, among others. However, little is known about the F-box genes in the important legume crop, chickpea. The available draft genome sequence of chickpea allowed us to conduct a genome-wide survey of the F-box gene family in chickpea. Results: A total of 285 F-box genes were identified in chickpea which were classified based on their C-terminal domain structures into 10 subfamilies. Thirteen putative novel motifs were also identified in F-box proteins with no known functional domain at their C-termini. The F-box genes were physically mapped on the 8 chickpea chromosomes and duplication events were investigated which revealed that the F-box gene family expanded largely due to tandem duplications. Phylogenetic analysis classified the chickpea F-box genes into 9 clusters. Also, maximum syntenic relationship was observed with soybean followed by Medicago truncatula, Lotus japonicus and Arabidopsis. Digital expression analysis of F-box genes in various chickpea tissues as well as under abiotic stress conditions utilizing the available chickpea transcriptome data revealed differential expression patterns with several F-box genes specifically expressing in each tissue, few of which were validated by using quantitative real-time PCR. Conclusions: The genome-wide analysis of chickpea F-box genes provides new opportunities for characterization of candidate F-box genes and elucidation of their function in growth, development and stress responses for utilization in chickpea improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND The use of traditional foods can enrich our diet, perpetuating important elements of local knowledge and cultural inheritance. Raw, soaked and cooked samples of two Fabaceae species ( Cicer arietinum L. and Lathyrus sativus L.) were characterized regarding nutritional and bioactive properties. RESULTS L. sativus gave the highest carbohydrate, protein, ash, saturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid content, and lowest fat and energy value. Furthermore, it also showed the highest concentration of flavonoids and antioxidant activity. Cicer arietinum gave the highest concentration of sugars, organic acids and tocopherols. The soaking process did not significantly affect macronutrients, but cooking (boiling) decreased protein, ash, sugars and organic acids, and increased carbohydrates, fat, tocopherols, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity. No differences were obtained for fatty acid composition. CONCLUSION The present study highlights the nutritional profile and bioactive properties of these agricultural varieties of C. arietinum and L. sativus pulses, and valorizes their traditional consumption and the use in modern diets. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terminal drought causes major yield loss in chickpea, so it is imperative to identify genotypes with best suited adaptive traits to secure yield in terminal drought-prone environments. Here, we evaluated chickpea (At) rd29A:: (At) DREB1A transgenic events (RD2, RD7, RD9 and RD10) and their untransformed C235 genotype for growth, water use and yield under terminal water-stress (WS) and well-watered (WW) conditions. The assessment was made across three lysimetric trials conducted in contained environments in the greenhouse (2009GH and 2010GH) and the field (2010F). Results from the greenhouse trials showed genotypic variation for harvest index (HI), yield, temporal pattern of flowering and seed filling, temporal pattern of water uptake across crop cycle, and transpiration efficiency (TE) under terminal WS conditions. The mechanisms underlying the yield gain in the WS transgenic events under 2009GH trial was related to conserving water for the reproductive stage in RD7, and setting seeds early in RD10. Water conservation also led to a lower percentage of flower and pod abortion in both RD7 and RD10. Similarly, in the 2010GH trial, reduced water extraction during vegetative stage in events RD2, RD7 and RD9 was critical for better seed filling in the pods produced from late flowers in RD2, and reduced percentage of flower and pod abortion in RD2 and RD9. However, in the 2010F trial, the increased seed yield and HI in RD9 compared with C235 came along only with small changes in water uptake and podding pattern, probably not causal. Events RD2 (2010GH), RD7 (2010GH) and RD10 (2009GH) with higher seed yield also had higher TE than C235. The results suggest that DREB1A, a transcription factor involved in the regulation of several genes of abiotic stress response cascade, influenced the pattern of water uptake and flowering across the crop cycle, leading to reduction in the percentage of flower and pod abortion in the glasshouse trials. Effect of DREB1A on the yield under stress of transgenic chickpea was tested in a lysimetric system. Only modest yield benefits were found and higher yield related with higher water availability during the reproduction and grain filling period and the capacity to successfully produce filled pods from late flowers. This confirms earlier results obtained with chickpea germplasm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past years deep sequencing experiments have opened novel doors to reconstruct viral populations in a high-throughput and cost-effective manner. Currently a substantial number of studies have been performed which employ next generation sequencing techniques to either analyze known viruses by means of a reference-guided approach or to discover novel viruses using a de novo-based strategy.Taking advantage of the well-known Cymbidium ringspot virus we have carried out a comparison of different bioinformatics tools to reconstruct the viral genome based on 21-27 nt short (s)RNA sequencing with the aim to identify the most efficient pipeline. The same approach was applied to a population of plants constituting an ancient variety of Cicer arietinum with red seeds. Among the discovered viruses, we describe the presence of a Tobamovirus referring to the Tomato mottle mosaic virus (NC_022230), whichwas not yet observed on C. arietinum nor revealed in Europe and a viroid referring to Hop stunt viroid (NC_001351.1) never reported in chickpea. Notably, a reference sequence guided approach appeared the most efficient in such kind of investigation. Instead, the de novo assembly reached a non-appreciable coverage although the most prominent viral species could still be identified. Advantages and limitations of viral metagenomics analysis using sRNAs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The plant-specific NAC transcription factors (TFs) play important roles in regulation of diverse biological processes, including development, growth, cell division and responses to environmental stimuli. In this study, we identified the members of the NAC TF family of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and assess their expression profiles during plant development and under dehydration and abscisic acid (ABA) treatments in a systematic manner. Seventy-one CaNAC genes were detected from the chickpea genome, including 8 membrane-bound members of which many might be involved in dehydration responses as judged from published literature. Phylogenetic analysis of the chickpea and well-known stress-related Arabidopsis and rice NACs enabled us to predict several putative stress-related CaNACs. By exploring available transcriptome data, we provided a comprehensive expression atlas of CaNACs in various tissues at different developmental stages. With the highest interest in dehydration responses, we examined the expression of the predicted stress-related and membrane-bound CaNACs in roots and leaves of chickpea seedlings, subjected to well-watered (control), dehydration and ABA treatments, using real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Nine-teen of the 23 CaNACs examined were found to be dehydration-responsive in chickpea roots and/or leaves in either ABA-dependent or -independent pathway. Our results have provided a solid foundation for selection of promising tissue-specific and/or dehydration-responsive CaNAC candidates for detailed in planta functional analyses, leading to development of transgenic chickpea varieties with improved productivity under drought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding developmental processes, especially in non-model crop plants, is extremely important in order to unravel unique mechanisms regulating development. Chickpea (C. arietinum L.) seeds are especially valued for their high carbohydrate and protein content. Therefore, in order to elucidate the mechanisms underlying seed development in chickpea, deep sequencing of transcriptomes from four developmental stages was undertaken. In this study, next generation sequencing platform was utilized to sequence the transcriptome of four distinct stages of seed development in chickpea. About 1.3 million reads were generated which were assembled into 51,099 unigenes by merging the de novo and reference assemblies. Functional annotation of the unigenes was carried out using the Uniprot, COG and KEGG databases. RPKM based digital expression analysis revealed specific gene activities at different stages of development which was validated using Real time PCR analysis. More than 90% of the unigenes were found to be expressed in at least one of the four seed tissues. DEGseq was used to determine differentially expressing genes which revealed that only 6.75% of the unigenes were differentially expressed at various stages. Homology based comparison revealed 17.5% of the unigenes to be putatively seed specific. Transcription factors were predicted based on HMM profiles built using TF sequences from five legume plants and analyzed for their differential expression during progression of seed development. Expression analysis of genes involved in biosynthesis of important secondary metabolites suggested that chickpea seeds can serve as a good source of antioxidants. Since transcriptomes are a valuable source of molecular markers like simple sequence repeats (SSRs), about 12,000 SSRs were mined in chickpea seed transcriptome and few of them were validated. In conclusion, this study will serve as a valuable resource for improved chickpea breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea (Cicer arietinumL.) seedlings growing on different concentrations of inorganic phosphate and pyrophosphate in agar based MS-medium were studied for their growth and activities of phosphatases in cotyledon, shoots and roots. Growth of seedlings was affected with both Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) and Pyrophosphate (PPi). Germination was completely inhibited beyond 100 mM monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4) and 20 mM sodium pyrophosphate. Specific activities of acid phosphatases of cotyledons, shoots and roots decreased under high Pi-supply however alkaline phosphatases were not affected. Addition of PPi increased specific activities of acid phosphatases of roots and shoots at 3 days after germination (DAG) stage, but decreased at later stages of seedling growth. There was an appearance of PPi-specific acid phosphatase in roots under PPi-supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is the second most widely grown legume worldwide and is the most important pulse crop in the Indian subcontinent. Chickpea productivity is adversely affected by a large number of biotic and abiotic stresses. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been implicated in the regulation of plant responses to several biotic and abiotic stresses. This study is the first attempt to identify chickpea miRNAs that are associated with biotic and abiotic stresses. The wilt infection that is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceris is one of the major diseases severely affecting chickpea yields. Of late, increasing soil salinization has become a major problem in realizing these potential yields. Three chickpea libraries using fungal-infected, salt-treated and untreated seedlings were constructed and sequenced using next-generation sequencing technology. A total of 12,135,571 unique reads were obtained. In addition to 122 conserved miRNAs belonging to 25 different families, 59 novel miRNAs along with their star sequences were identified. Four legume-specific miRNAs, including miR5213, miR5232, miR2111 and miR2118, were found in all of the libraries. Poly(A)-based qRT-PCR (Quantitative real-time PCR) was used to validate eleven conserved and five novel miRNAs. miR530 was highly up regulated in response to fungal infection, which targets genes encoding zinc knuckle- and microtubule-associated proteins. Many miRNAs responded in a similar fashion under both biotic and abiotic stresses, indicating the existence of cross talk between the pathways that are involved in regulating these stresses. The potential target genes for the conserved and novel miRNAs were predicted based on sequence homologies. miR166 targets a HD-ZIPIII transcription factor and was validated by 5′ RLM-RACE. This study has identified several conserved and novel miRNAs in the chickpea that are associated with gene regulation following exposure to wilt and salt stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thirty-nine isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri - the causal agent of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum) wilt - collected from different parts of India and representing eight races of the pathogen, were analyzed for virulence and classified on the basis of vegetative compatibility grouping (VCG). The wilt incidence ranged from 24% to 100% on a highly susceptible cultivar JG 62. Six isolates, from Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Punjab and Rajasthan and belonging to six different races of the pathogen, caused 100% wilt incidence. Five isolates belonging to four different races, namely, Foc 143 from Andhra Pradesh, Foc 161 from Chhattisgarh, Foc 146 from Karnataka, Foc 158 from Madhya Pradesh and Foc 50 from Rajasthan, caused low wilt incidence. For VCG analysis, nitrate non-utilizing mutants ( nit) were obtained by culturing wild-type isolates on 2.5% potassium chlorate and selecting resistant sectors. Complementary nit mutants were paired in all possible combinations to determine varying degrees of heterokaryon formation within the isolates, which showed that most of the isolates were self-compatible. Pairing of all the mutants showed that the isolates included in the present study belonged to a single VCG (0280). Thus, in spite of variability in the virulence, the Indian populations of the pathogen have only one VCG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulses play a major role in providing overall prosperity to the small and marginal farmers through nutritional security by meeting their dietary protein requirements and improving production base through conservation of natural resources. Inclusion of pulses in the cropping system as a crop rotation improves soil fertility and crop productivity of cereals and oil seeds. Chickpea is one of the important pulses cultivated in Vertisols during winter season. We examined chickpea cultivars for energy use efficiency, economics, physiological efficiency and water use efficiency (WUE) under different rainfall situations for their sustainable yield and overall profit, in Vertisols of semi-arid tropics of South India. Results revealed that low input energy and high grain and stover yields of cultivars result in higher total output energy and net benefit energy. Higher dry matter efficiency of 0.702 was observed with medium-duration cultivar, whereas WUE was higher in short-duration cultivar followed by medium-duration cultivar. We conclude that medium- duration cultivar and short-duration cultivar are more suitable for the SAT region in terms of greater energy benefits, higher income per unit area, physiological efficiency and water use efficiency. Thus short-duration cultivar could be cultivated during normal to above normal rainfall years and during normal to drought years in winter season on residual soil moisture in Vertisols medium-duration cultivar for higher energy efficiency and economics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study on the behavior of five lines of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), from the Dry Areas Research Institute (ICARDA), (Syrian Arab Republic), for Los Palacios´s municipality conditions was carried out. Sowing was done in December of 2008. A randomized block experimental design with three replications using three cuban varieties as control treatments was employed. The plant height (cm), number of branches/plant, number of sheaths/plant, filled and empty sheaths/plant, 100-grain weight (g), crop yield (t.ha-1) and disease incidence (%) were evaluated. The obtained values were analyzed using a simple ANOVA and means were compared by Tukey's test. The results indicated that all lines responded to the edaphoclimatic conditions of the site. Nevertheless, lines 1 and 3 showed the best behavior in all evaluated characters even the yield, which exceeded 2 t.ha-1. Also they were highly resistant to disease caused by Fusarium sp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris (Foc), the causal agent of Fusarium wilt of chickpea is highly variable and frequent recurrence of virulent forms have affected chickpea production and exhausted valuable genetic resources. The severity and yield losses of Fusarium wilt differ from place to place owing to existence of physiological races among isolates. Diversity study of fungal population associated with a disease plays a major role in understanding and devising better disease control strategies. The advantages of using molecular markers to understand the distribution of genetic diversity in Foc populations is well understood. The recent development of Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) offers new possibilities to study the diversity in pathogen population. In this study, we developed DArT markers for Foc population, analysed the genetic diversity existing within and among Foc isolates, compared the genotypic and phenotypic diversity and infer the race scenario of Foc in India. Results We report the successful development of DArT markers for Foc and their utility in genotyping of Foc collections representing five chickpea growing agro-ecological zones of India. The DArT arrays revealed a total 1,813 polymorphic markers with an average genotyping call rate of 91.16% and a scoring reproducibility of 100%. Cluster analysis, principal coordinate analysis and population structure indicated that the different isolates of Foc were partially classified based on geographical source. Diversity in Foc population was compared with the phenotypic variability and it was found that DArT markers were able to group the isolates consistent with its virulence group. A number of race-specific unique and rare alleles were also detected. Conclusion The present study generated significant information in terms of pathogenic and genetic diversity of Foc which could be used further for development and deployment of regionspecific resistant cultivars of chickpea. The DArT markers were proved to be a powerful diagnostic tool to study the genotypic diversity in Foc. The high number of DArT markers allowed a greater resolution of genetic differences among isolates and enabled us to examine the extent of diversity in the Foc population present in India, as well as provided support to know the changing race scenario in Foc population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea is the world's third most important legume crop and belongs to Fabaceae family but suffered from severe yield loss due to various biotic and abiotic stresses. Development of modern genomic tools such as molecular markers and identification of resistant genes associated with these stresses facilitate improvement in chickpea breeding towards abiotic stress tolerance. In this study, 1597 high-quality expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were generated from a cDNA library of variety Pusa 1105 root tissue after cadmium (Cd) treatment. Assembly of ESTs resulted in a total of 914 unigenes of which putative homology was obtained for 38.8 % of unigenes after BLASTX search. In terms of species distribution, majority of sequences found similarity with Medicago truncatula followed by Glycine max, Vitis vinifera and Populus trichocarpa and Pisum sativum sequences. Functional annotation was assigned using Blast2Go, and the Gene Ontology (GO) terms were categorized into biological process, molecular function and cellular component. Approximately 10.83 % of unigenes were assigned at least one GO term. Moreover, in the distribution of transcripts into various biological pathways, 20 of the annotated transcripts were assigned to ten pathways in KEGG database. A majority of the genes were found to be involved in sulphur and nitrogen metabolism. In the quantitative real-time PCR analysis, five of the transcription factors and three of the transporter genes were found to be highly expressed after Cd treatment. Besides, the utility of ESTs was demonstrated by exploiting them for the development of 83 genic molecular markers including EST-simple sequence repeats and intron targeted polymorphism that would assist in tagging of genes related to metal stress for future prospects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Responses of parameters related with photosynthesis and the involvement of various factors in photosynthetic damage in two chickpea genotypes, Gokce (tolerant) and Kusmen (sensitive) under drought stress were assessed. Photosynthetic pigment content decreased under drought stress in two genotypes. Significant decreases in gs, Pn and E were determined in Kusmen. No significant change in these parameters was measured in Gokce under drought stress. Fv/Fm, ΦPS2 and ETR decreased in drought stressed plants of Kusmen as compared to control plants however Fv/Fm, ΦPS2 and ETR did not change in Gokce under drought stress. Increases in NPQ were determined under stress in both genotypes. Drought stress did not affect rubisco activity and rubisco concentration in Gokce while, the activity and the content declined in Kusmen. The drought tolerance of the Gokce genotype is a consequence of a balance among leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, and transpiration. On the other hand, photosynthesis in Kusmen may be not only restricted by stomatal limitations but also by non-stomatal limitations under drought stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpea is an important food legume crop for the semi-arid regions, however, its productivity is adversely affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses. Identification of candidate genes associated with abiotic stress response will help breeding efforts aiming to enhance its productivity. With this objective, 10 abiotic stress responsive candidate genes were selected on the basis of prior knowledge of this complex trait. These 10 genes were subjected to allele specific sequencing across a chickpea reference set comprising 300 genotypes including 211 genotypes of chickpea mini core collection. A total of 1.3Mbp sequence data were generated. Multiple sequence alignment (MSA) revealed 79 SNPs and 41 indels in nine genes while the CAP2 gene was found to be conserved across all the genotypes. Among 10 candidate genes, the maximum number of SNPs (34) was observed in abscisic acid stress and ripening (ASR) gene including 22 transitions, 11 transversions and one tri-allelic SNP. Nucleotide diversity varied from 0.0004 to 0.0029 while polymorphism information content (PIC) values ranged from 0.01 (AKIN gene) to 0.43 (CAP2 promoter). Haplotype analysis revealed that alleles were represented by more than two haplotype blocks, except alleles of the CAP2 and sucrose synthase (SuSy) gene, where only one haplotype was identified. These genes can be used for association analysis and if validated, may be useful for enhancing abiotic stress, including drought tolerance, through molecular breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]