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Copyright of Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi is the property of Artvin Coruh University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi is the property of Artvin Coruh University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this study, the effects of white mistletoe (Viscum album subsp. abietis (Wiesb.) Abromerit) on diameter increment in Kazdağı fir (Abies nordmanniana subsp. equi-trojani (Asc. & Sint. ex Boiss.) Coode & Cullen) stands distributed in Kastamonu region of Turkey were investigated. For this purpose, a total of 183 sample trees (77 healthy (uninfected) and 106 infected) were selected from mistletoe-infected stands. Mistletoe infected sample trees were classified according to the mistletoe intensity groups as lightly-, moderately- and heavily-infection levels. Increment cores were taken from the sampled trees, and annual ring widths were measured for evaluation period which is the last 30 years of sample trees. Underbark diameter increments were determined for the last 10, 20 and 30 years and for also last three 10-year periods. Mistletoe infected trees were compared to healthy trees according to the mean diameter increments. As a result, it was determined that there were statistically significant differences between underbark diameter increments of infected and uninfected trees. Increment losses of infected trees compared to uninfected trees were calculated as 21%, 28% and 33% for the last 30, 20 and 10 years, respectively. Similarly, significant differences were also observed for the last three 10-year periods and it was revealed that the underbark diameter increment losses were 11%, 24% and 33%, respectively. The results show that increment losses increase gradually with infection and the presence of white mistletoe negatively affects diameter increments with an increasing acceleration from the past to the present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to determine the stand structure and spatial distribution patterns in rare mixed stands of Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis L.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach. subsp. nordmanniana). The study was conducted in Ovacik Forests of Artvin, Turkey in 2016. To evaluate stand structure, the distribution of tree species was determined according to developmental stage (seedling- thicket stage; sapling- pole stage; small wood stage; medium - large wood stage) and vertical structure (overstory, middlestory and understory). Spatial distribution of trees was analyzed using Ripley's K function in ArcGIS. Results showed that all three species contributed to the mixed stand. Caucasian fir dominated in in all plots and plots had a layered structure. Spatial analyses revealed that all trees showed clumped distributions (p<0.01) at smaller scales. Scots pine and Caucasian fir mostly showed random distribution whereas Oriental spruce showed a clumped distribution at 0-7 m scales. Each of the tree species at the medium wood developmental stage showed random distributions at all scales. Clumped distribution was observed in the middle and understory while trees in the overstory layer were randomly distributed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of the year of site preparation relative to that of large-scale seed dispersal on seed germination and seedling survival success for natural regeneration of oriental spruce in a mixed forest of oriental spruce (.Picea orientalis) and Caucasian fir {Abies nordmanniano) in the Pasakonagi region of Giresun province. Turkey. Two ecologically similar sites, both 120 years of age with an area of 12 ha (site 20) or 15 ha (site 21) were selected. Seed-tree cutting, site preparation and soil tillage activities were performed in "site 20" in 2014. which was a low seed year, and in "site 21" in 2015. which was an abundant seed year, respectively. Oriental spruce trees at both sites dispersed an average of 363 seeds/m2 in the abundant seed year of 2015. and 92.840 and 143.704 oriental spruce seedlings per ha germinated from these seeds in 2016 in sites 20 and 21. respectively. Seedling number decreased significantly until May 2018 by 34.04% and 49.82% in "site 20" and 21. respectively (P<0.05). The greatest significant decrease took place during the first winter germination occurred. Taller and stockier seedlings occurred at "site 21" where site preparation and soil tillage was earned out in the same year as seed dispersal (P<0.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to develop segmented polynomial taper equations using the nonlinear mixed-effects modeling approach for Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana (Steven) Spach. subsp. nordmanniana) - Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Link.) mixed stands in Artvin-Ardanuç region of Turkey. For this purpose, the data obtained from 213 felled sample trees in total, which are 107 fir and 106 spruce, were used. Jiang et al.'s (2005) stem profile model produced the best prediction results for both tree species. The Radj2, RMSE, Ē , MAE, AIC and BIC values of the model were found as 98.7% and 98.3%, 1.700 and 1.814 cm, 0.143 and 0.167 cm, 1.179 and 1.269 cm, 4142.2 and 3951.7, 4148.5 and 3957.8 for fir and spruce, respectively. Based on AIC, BIC and -2LnL criteria, the model including random-effects in two parameters (b3 and b4) were the best for both tree species. This mixed-effects model with two random parameters showed homogeneous residual variance and autocorrelation was almost removed. Mixed-effects models provided much better fits than their fixed model counterparts for both species. In addition, among 12 different calibration choices, the best results were obtained with the choice involving the measurement of five diameters that divide the sample tree measurements into two equal parts for fir and of four diameters that bottom of the sample tree for spruce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, several wood properties were investigated along with the longitudinal direction for oriental beech and caucasian fir trees grown in Turkey. Wood density, compression strength parallel to grain, chemical characteristics (holocelluose, celluose, lignin), fiber dimensions (fiber length, fiber width, fiber lumen width, fiber cell wall thickness) were measured from the sapwood of the discs taken at the stem heights of 1,30; 6,30 and 12,30 meters. Both wood species showed clear trends in wood properties along longitudinal direction. For both wood species, the highest values in density, compression strength, volumetric shrinkage and swelling were at 1,30 m stem height, and the investigated parameters decreased along with the stem height, while longitudinal shrinkage and swelling percentage increased. The highest cellulose content was found at 1,30 m stem height, and the highest lignin content was found at 12,30 m stem height for both wood species. The longest fibers and the thickest fiber walls were determined at 1,30 m stem height in both wood species. These results clearly indicated that stem height greatly affected the investigated wood properties for both wood species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Alexandru Beldie" Herbarium (Code: BUCF), hosted by "Marin Drăcea" National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry, was founded in 1929. Together with other fifteen herbaria from Romania, BUCF is listed in Index Herbariorum. This herbarium is composed of more than 60.000 samples (paper sheets) of preserved specimens of trees, mosses, lichens, ferns and plants. The aim of this paper was to provide an overview of the representatives of genus Abies Mill. included in "Alexandru Beldie" Herbarium. Eighty paper sheets containing sixteen taxa belonging to genus Abies Mill. were analyzed. The majority of the plant material was collected from Romania by known botanists, between 1880 and 1960. European silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) and Nordmann fir [Abies nordmanniana (Steven) Spach] were the most common species. The Herbarium contains also some rare species such as Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo Boiss.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synthetic dyes are widely used in many fields, such as textile industry, plastics, cosmetics, paper industry and many others. Due to their toxicity, they should be removed from wastes before discharging in the environment. In order to determine the efficiency of the removal process, different methods are used to detect traces of dyes in wastewaters. The most used are spectrophotometry and FIA, however the expensive equipment and complicated testing process make these methods difficult to use. On the contrary, electrochemical sensors have multiple advantages such as short response time, low price and easiness to use. In this context, several electrochemical sensors based on new carbonaceous materials were developed and characterized. Carbon nanotubes, graphene and activated carbon from Abies nordmanniana cones together with Nafion were used to modify the surface of a glassy carbon electrode by drop casting. The resulting modified electrodes were tested by SWASV and amperometry for Malachite Green detection in aqueous solutions, having low detection limits in the order of μM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the presented research was to investigate the effect of three heavy metals - lead, cadmium and copper - on the callus cells of Abies nordmanniana. The toxicity degree and toxicity effect of the selected heavy metals was determined on the embryonic level. On the basis of the spectrometric analyses as well as macroscopic and microscopic observations, this research referred to the accumulation of heavy metals in tissues, assuming that this mechanism is related to the acquisition of tolerance by cells exposed to this type of abiotic stress. Moreover, the effect of the genotype of fir on the cell defence, that is, the induction of tolerance, was analysed. Understanding of the issues related to the heavy metal resistance of plant genotypes in future may contribute to the selection of genotypes of individuals that are more resistant to stress factors, particularly in the multi-directional and rational forest management. The results showed that lead (20 mg l-1), which proved to be the most toxic amongst the three examined heavy metals, has the most severe negative effects on the tissue of fir trees. Copper (20 mg l-1) was accumulated for a long time in the cells of fir trees, and it was not degraded or excreted outside the tissues even after three weeks of in vitro culture. Of the three tested genotypes, G14 had the greatest tendency to accumulate each of the examined metals, that is, it appeared to be the least tolerant genotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adsorption of Malachite Green (MG) dye on a biomass prepared from fir (Abies nordmanniana) cones, followed by UV-Vis detection has been studied. The biomass was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The maximum adsorption capacity of MG onto fir cones biomass was determined to be 2.197 mg/g. The influence of pH on the removal of the MG dye was investigated and the results showed that the best adsorption capacity were obtained in the most acidic environment (pH=2). The adsorption rates were evaluated by fitting the experimental data to conventional kinetic models such as pseudo- first- and pseudo-second-order models. From the Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm model, a 5.95 kJ/mol value for the mean free energy was calculated, indicating that MG adsorption could include an important physisorption stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effect of light on the sapling forms of Turkish fir (Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana), an endemic species for Turkey extensively used in landscaping work, was examined. For this purpose, 24 morphological characteristics and another 7 parameters were determined by measurements and calculations carried out on saplings chosen from full light, half-shadow and shadow field conditions and thus, the effect of light on sapling forms with regard to a total of 31 characteristics was examined. It was determined at the end of the study that fir saplings in full light were at the age of 13.9 grown up to 190.3 cm in length and 2.52 cm in diameter, saplings in half-shadow conditions at the age of 19.8 were grown up to 109.8 cm in length and 1.8 cm in diameter and saplings in shadow at the age of 27.6 were grown up to 100.9 cm in length and 1.68 cm in diameter. It was determined that saplings in full light grew 3.7 times in length and 2.9 times in diameter faster compared to saplings in shadow and that light intensity affected all characteristics subject to this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ten exoticAbiesspecies were tested in two field trials, where the aim was to find suitable species and provenances for Christmas tree production in coastal and fjord areas in Norway. The material included 14 provenances ofAbies nordmanniana, 3 provenances ofAbies bornmuelleriana, 3 provenances ofAbies koreana, 2 provenances ofAbies amabilis, and 1 provenance each ofAbies equi-trojani,Abies alba,Abies procera,Abies homolepis,Abies nephrolepis, andAbies forrestii. Field trials were established at Gulen in Sogn og Fjordane County and at Verdal in Nord-Trøndelag County. Christmas tree classification was done seven and eight growing seasons after establishment. The Christmas tree yield was higher in Gulen (64%) than in Verdal (45%), which is situated further north. Also, the survival and the height growth were higher in Gulen than in Verdal. A more humid climate and a longer growth season in Gulen may explain some of the differences. Of the 10 species,A. nordmanniana,A. homolepis, andA. bornmuellerianaproduced the highest Christmas tree yield at Gulen, whileA. homolepisandA. koreanahad the highest yield at Verdal. Due to early bud burst,A. equi-trojaniandA. bornmuellerianaare only suited for Christmas tree growing in the best climatic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) were evaluated for laminated veneer lumber (LVL) in static bending. The studied species were spruce (Picea orientalis) and fir (Abies nordmanniana) originated from the Eastern Black sea region and prepared with phenolformaldehyde and melamine-urea-formaldehyde. The effect of wood species, steaming, drying temperature, and type of adhesive on static bending MOE and MOR were determined. According to the experimental results, the bending strength of spruce wood (Maçka) treated with phenol formadehyde adhesives is the highest for the specimens steamed for 6 h at a drying temperature of 110 °C. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity for spruce wood (Maçka) treated with phenol formadehyde adhesive is the highest for the specimens steamed for 12 h and subjected to a drying temperature of 150 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, the older houses and barns of various ages have been widely built from wood in the rural and highland areas across the country of Turkey. These wooden houses and barns are in dilapidated, abandoned or deteriorated conditions and they are left to a slower destruction or these buildings are demolished for use as firewood. The recycled sound wood from old buildings may be called 'Antique Wood' and has been found new life at the furniture industry in Kastamonu, Turkey. In addition, there is a growing demand for the high priced antique wood furniture by the customers. The objective of this study is to determine and to compare some physical and mechanical properties, including shock resistance, of an antique wood which has been in service for more than 100 years, and fresh cut Pinus sylvestris L. and Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana Mattf. woods. The findings may help furniture makers to use more antique wood for high priced furniture and to reduce the waste of using it as firewood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Forestry Faculty of Kastamonu University is the property of Kastamonu University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Considerable debates exist about the efficacy of foliar application of nutrients to Christmas trees, but little research has been conducted to determine whether this method of fertilization is beneficial. In this study, standard foliar and soil-applied fertilization products were applied to Nordmann fir Christmas trees under greenhouse and field-grown management regimes. On both sites, foliar nitrogen (N) and boron (B) concentrations, color, and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) were evaluated. Plant growth and needle chlorophyll/carotenoids were also monitored at the greenhouse site and sulfur (S) at the field site. At all sites, the soil-applied fertilizers were effective in increasing foliar N% compared to untreated and foliar applications. The foliar-applied products did not improve foliar N% compared to untreated trees. Foliar B concentrations were correlated with foliar fertilizer applications, indicating that B can be absorbed via foliar application. A second part of this study investigated alternate or complementary methods of assessing foliar N%. We addressed whether plant color, spectral reflectance, chlorophyll measures, or NDVI measurements could serve as surrogates for foliar N%. Color, chlorophyll/carotenoid, and foliar N% were closely correlated. However, NDVI evaluations showed no relationship with foliar N%, color, or chlorophyll/carotenoid levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crossability relationships between six species of the Mediterranean, North American and Asian firs was tested using Abies alba and A. nordmanniana as female parents and A. alba, A. numidica, A. procera, A. grandis, and A. holophylla as pollen parents. An overwhelming majority of the crosses attempted was found to be compatible. In particular, it is true of the A. alba cross with A. numidica and those of A. nordmanniana with A. alba, A. numidica, A. procera, and A. holophylla. The crossing A. nordmanniana × A. grandis was the only exception producing empty seeds. Cytological study revealed the gametophytic incompatibility to be responsible for reproductive isolation of these species. At seedling level, all the interspecific crosses of A. nordmanniana surpassed in height growth self-pollinated control. The cross A. alba × A. numidica was comparable in this respect with control variants from open and self-pollination. Except for height growth, some characteristics of needle stomata are provided for individual crosses. The crosses A. nordmanniana with A. procera and A. holophylla represent unique interspecific combinations whose existence has not been reported yet. Based on needle stomata characteristics, the potential for increased resistance and drought tolerance of the hybrids with A. numidica involved as parental species is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determination of the good seed year is important to obtain high quality and quantity seeds from stands. Also, pollination and fertilization need to be done without problems. Tree quality, health and good seed bearing capacity is related to climatic factors during flowering and seeding stage and related to site conditions. Healthy, high quality and enough number of seeds are required in order to have a successful natural regeneration. Observing the morphological characteristics of trees in the stand or as single trees is the fastest, easiest and cheapest way to characterize their health status. In this study, a tree species, Caucasian fir, from the Karadeniz Technical University campus was observed. Phenological changes of the male and female flowers will be observed periodically and photos of these changes will be provided. During the early months observations will be weekly but on later periods observations will be bi-weekly. Caucasian fir's pollination, fertilization, cone formation, cone growth and seed fall will be determined based on observations and the study results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims at determining the visual values of solitary and group fir trees in Kastamonu city and the differences in their visual perceptions according to seasons. For this purpose selected trees in Ilgaz National Park were photographed in two different time periods (in snowy days of 2012 and in other days). Four different fir tree images were used in this study. These tree images are (i) image of a fir tree under snow load, (ii) ordinary image of a fir tree, (iii) image of a composition created by the fir trees under snow load, and (iv) ordinary image of a composition created by the fir trees. These photographs were evaluated by Kastamonu University Forestry Faculty students by using Semantic Differential Scale Technique. According to this technique ten pairs of opposing adjectives were chosen for the evaluation the visual quality of the figures. Consequently, in this study the differences in their visual perceptions according to seasons were determined. In addition, differences on perception of physical characteristics such as form, branching structure, texture, trunk, and foliage were also investigated. The respondents' socio-economic structure's effects on human perception were researched as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Context: Many tree breeding programmes rely entirely on clonal seed orchards as the link between breeding activities and forestry, and are thereby also exposed to yearly fluctuations in the orchard crops. • Aims: The main objective was to study the impact of year and clone fluctuations in strobili production on genetic worth, as well as on genetic diversity, of 18 consecutive commercial seed orchard crops. • Methods: In a mature Abies nordmanniana clonal seed orchard, a yearly visual assessment of female and male strobili was carried out on a total of 18 clones (260 ramets), and coupled with clone breeding values. • Results: Despite large annual and clone variation, and year-by-clone interaction in strobili production, the orchard's genetic worth was somewhat uniform when considering four evaluated traits in the 11 years of superior or medium crop size. These years accounted for 95% of the accumulated cone crop over the whole period (18 years). Noteworthy deviations were only seen in the seven poorest seed years, comprising the remaining 5% of the total cone crop, where genetic diversity measures were also low. • Conclusion: Avoiding small crop years seems to be a reasonable way to avoid fluctuations in the commercial seed orchard product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low soil temperatures limit nutrient uptake with negative consequences for growth and foliage quality. A better understanding of the temperature sensitivity of root N uptake is required to improve the best management practices for fertilization of conifers. Uptake of 15N in saplings of Abies lasiocarpa (Hook) Nutt and Abies nordmanniana (Steven) Spach was studied at root temperatures of 3–15°C in hydroponics. 15N accumulation in shoots increased with temperature, showing accelerated accumulation from 7°C upward. At 3°C, uptake rates were low for both species. Between 7 and 12°C, 15N accumulation in shoots increased by a factor of 5 in A. lasiocarpa and by a factor of 3 in A. nordmanniana. The temperature response of N uptake was similar to root growth responses to temperature documented by previous studies. The results have implications for early season fertilization, where fertilization of both species should be withheld until soil temperatures reach 10–12°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Forestry Faculty of Kastamonu University is the property of Kastamonu University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The economic potential of 35 seed lots from Danish landraces of Nordmann fir [Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach.] and seven imported provenances were evaluated for high-value Christmas tree production over a full rotation at six locations in Denmark. Naturally grown Christmas trees were evaluated and no leader length control or trimming of the side branches was allowed, but only simple cutting of double terminal leaders. Seed source as well as site strongly affected the economic revenue. Average net sales price per planted tree ranged over sites from €2.43 to €6.64, and among provenances from €1.38 to €7.06 with an average of €4.95. Changes in prices and grading as seen under cycling market conditions seemed not to affect the economic ranking of the better part of the provenances, whereas discounting the net sales income caused moderate rank changes, reflecting differences in rotation time. Limited seed source by site interactions were present and mainly caused by the slowest growing sources. Among the Danish domesticated seed sources of mostly unknown origin several were as suitable as the tested imported sources. In general, the Danish sources were faster growing than imports, although very large variation was present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a conifer tree, such as Nordmann fir, Abies nordmanniana Spach, the leader bud and its immediate surroundings play a decisive role in crown architecture. As subapical branch buds are segregated from the leader meristem, resource allocation between ortho- and plagiotropic growth is determined. The relationship between treetop buds in young trees was studied in the natural state and after surgical removal in early July of either the leader bud (decapitation) or the subapical whorl branch buds (destipitation). The two bud types showed consistent cytokinin profile differences but similar seasonal dynamics in cytokinins and auxin (IAA). After bud excision, ZRP increased dramatically in the subapical stem within 1 h, followed by ZR within 1 week. Supernormal levels of ZR were maintained through autumn and persisted in spring in the destipitated trees, but had returned to normal in the decapitated trees. The treetop buds remaining after bud excision experienced an immediate decrease in most cytokinins, followed, however, by a large surplus later in the season. The following spring this high level persisted in the leader bud of destipitated trees, but not in whorl buds of decapitated trees. Conspicuous growth pattern changes followed from destipitation, but few from decapitation. Growth reactions suggest that resource allocation to main branch buds inhibits leader growth in normal trees, a kind of “lateral control.” Auxin and ABA content in buds and stems was largely unaffected by treatments. Data suggest that subapical leader tissues beneath the apical bud group are a primary source of cytokinin regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Current season needle necrosis (CSNN) has been a serious foliage disorder on true fir Christmas trees and bough material in Europe and North America for more than 25y. Approximately 2–4 weeks after bud break, needles develop chlorotic spots or bands that later turn necrotic. The symptoms have been observed on noble fir (Abies procera), Nordmann fir (A. nordmanniana) and grand fir (A. grandis) on both continents. CSNN was reported as a physiological disorder with unknown aetiology from USA, Denmark, and Ireland, but was associated with the fungus Kabatina abietis in Germany, Austria and Norway. In 2007, a fungus that morphologically resembled K. abietis was isolated from symptomatic needle samples from Nordmann fir from Austria, Denmark, Germany, Norway, and USA. Sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA of these cultures, plus a K. abietis reference culture from Germany (CBS 248.93), resulted in Hormonema dematioides, the imperfect stage of Sydowia polyspora, and thus the taxonomy is further discussed. Inoculation tests on Nordmann fir seedlings and transplants with isolates of S. polyspora from all five countries resulted in the development of CSNN symptoms. In 2009, S. polyspora was also isolated from symptomatic needles from Nordmann fir collected in Slovakia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abies nordmanniana and Abies lasiocarpa, established for Christmas tree production in southwestern Norway (58°44'N, 5°38'E), were treated with different weed control methods, including chemicals, use of black plastic mulch, grass or clover as ground cover, living mulch and mechanical hoeing. Ground cover with black plastic mulching resulted in the best growth and quality in A. lasiocarpa; the least favourable treatment was when grasses were allowed to grow close to the trees. Unless measures were taken to remove this competing vegetation, the ground cover grew over the trees, smothering 94% of them. A. nordmanniana plants grew to the same height on plots with no weed control as on plots with thorough weed eradication. Stem diameter decreased on plots with ground vegetation compared to seedlings grown in the weed-free environment. The use of Trifolium repens as ground cover decreased height growth by 30% compared to thorough weed control. Both grasses and clover sown as living mulch, damaged the trees more than did natural weed vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four-year-old seedlings of Abies nordmanniana ssp. bornmülleriana and 5-year-old seedlings of Abies nordmanniana ssp . nordmanniana were inoculated on the lower stem with 28 Heterobasidion abietinum isolates originating from four different regions of Turkey. Replicate seedlings were incubated in greenhouse and growth chamber. After 7 weeks, infection incidence, mortality, lesion length in the inner bark and fungal growth in the sapwood were examined. Infection incidence in different host–incubation combinations ranged between 70.5 and 79.5% and the average mortality rate was 4.2%. Average lesion lengths varied between 8.4 and 33.9 mm, and average fungal growth between 18.7 and 34.8 mm. There was a significant positive correlation between lesion length in the inner bark and fungal growth in sapwood on both hosts and conditions. Clear differences in virulence between H. abietinum isolates originating from different regions were not found. The results indicate that H. abietinum is pathogenic on both investigated subspecies of A. nordmanniana. Both lesion length and fungal growth were greater on ssp . bornmülleriana, indicating that it would be more susceptible than ssp. nordmanniana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study we reported the feasibility of cone biomass Nordmann fir (Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach. subsp. nordmanniana) as an alternative biosorbent to remove Pb(II) and Zn(II) metal ions from aqueous solutions. The effects of pH, initial metal concentration, biosorbent dosage and contact time were studied in batch experiments. It was found that the optimum pH for Pb(II) and Zn(II) ions removal by cone biomass was pH 6.0. At the optimal conditions metal ions biosorption was decreased as the initial metal concentration increased. The maximum biosorption efficiency of Nordmann fir was 82% and 56.2% at 5 mg/L initial metal concentration for Pb(II) and Zn(II), respectively. The experimental equilibrium data were evaluated by Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conifer trees are routinely manipulated hormonally to increase flowering, branching, or adjust crown shape for production purposes. This survey of internal cytokinin levels provides a background for such treatments in Abies nordmanniana, a tree of great economic interest. Reference points in the crown and root system were sampled destructively in 4- and 6-year-old trees and analyzed for a range of cytokinins by LC-MS/MS. No seasonal patterns were detected in the root samples, and a major portion of cytokinin was in conjugated forms. Dramatic and consistent seasonal changes occurred in the crown, at levels 17–65 times higher than in the root. Predominant among crown cytokinins was ZR, except in the needles where IPR was also prominent. Within the crown, cytokinin profiles in different organs differed consistently. The leader bud showed a pronounced mid-June minimum, and a maximum later in summer. Subapical buds showed the same June minimum but peaked in mid autumn at a much lower level. Maxima in these buds were preceded by peaks in the subapical stem. Parallel patterns were observed in homologous tissues on branches.This pattern is consistent with two surges beginning in the uppermost stem tissues leading to subsequent accumulation or stimulated production within the buds. Strong differential hormonal profiles between adjacent buds with different fates agree with recent evidence of localized cytokinin production. The data suggest a reduced role of root-derived cytokinins in crown development. Practical cytokinin treatments for crown-shape regulation require close attention to dosage as well as precise timing and positioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frequent bud frost damage in cultivation of Abies procera Rehder and pending climate changes are the background for this study of cold hardiness under varying acclimation regime (in closed-top chambers) and experimental warm spells during the cold season. LTs0 values were established by freezing tests at different times of year. Damage and deaths were assessed on leader buds, subapical lateral buds, needles and cambium. Minor parallel experiments involved Abies nordmanniana, Picea abies and Picea sitchensis. Lower acclimation temperatures resulted in deeper frost hardiness during late autumn but less during spring, compared with ambient temperature controls. Elevated temperatures resulted in less deep frost resistance. Apical buds generally developed deeper frost hardiness than lateral buds but less deep than the cambium, varying with species, however. Frost damage in buds ranged from death over partially destroyed bud contents resulting in distorted shoots to buds seemingly remaining dormant. Responses to warm spells differed with duration, timing and species, ranging from dramatic decrease in frost hardiness with or without subsequent recovery to no reaction. Furthermore, the reactions did not show any clear relation to dormancy level. For A. procera, exposure to fluctuating temperatures appeared to be particularly problematic. This explains why this species develops best in coastal climates, and in sites sheltered from temperature extremes either by hedging, a winter snow cover, or topography. The Christmas tree production will suffer severely on sites with harsh temperatures due to losses of lateral and terminal buds, which destroy the crown symmetry. Clipping of greenery is less influenced by frost damages, although the development of normal branch whorls is often disturbed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, 31 stem taper functions from three model groups (simple polynomial, segmented and variable-form stem taper models) were analysed for Bornmullerian fir (Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana Mattf.). Diameter at breast height, total height and diameters outside bark at intervals of 1 m from the stump to the top of the tree were measured on 115 sample trees. Taper functions were fitted with data from 85 trees (76% of total data set) using a non-linear least squares method. Data from the other 30 trees (24% of total data set) were used as the validation data. Four statistical criteria (per cent variation explained, bias, absolute bias and mean squared error) were used to determine model accuracy. Box plots of the residual distributions were also produced to compare statistical accuracy by relative height class. Minimum residuals were obtained with the variable-form stem taper models at all stem parts. When the models were compared within their respective groups, the most accurate simple polynomial, segmented and variable-form models were Demaerschalk-II (1972), Farrar (1987) and Kozak (1988), respectively. Based on the statistical and graphic analysis, the model by Kozak (1988) was recommended for A. nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana in the Black Sea region of Turkey. The Demaerschalk-II (1972) model could also be used for practical purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to determine the changes in specific gravity and equilibrium moisture content of fir (Abies nordmanniana subsp. bornmulleriana Mattf.) wood after heat treatment at different temperatures and durations. In this study, the effects of three different temperatures and three different durations were investigated. The temperatures were 170, 190, and 210°C, and the durations were 4, 8, and 12 h. The equilibrium moisture contents of the heat-treated specimens were determined at 20°C at relative humidities of 35, 50, 65, 80, and 90%, and the results were compared with control specimens. The results indicated that increasing temperatures increased the weight loss of the specimens. With respect to dimensional stabilization, the heat-treated specimens had lower equilibrium moisture contents than did the control specimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of tree canopy (distance from the stem) on litter decay rates were investigated in the field for 4 years. Needle litter of Nordmann fir [Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach.], Oriental spruce [Picea orientalis (L.) Link] and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) species were placed at three distances from their stems (<1 m, 1-2 m and >2 m). The litter showed highest decomposition rates at the distance of >2 m and lowest rates at <1 m for all species. Initial lignin concentrations were most strongly correlated with the decay rates, but among the microclimatic and soil factors, forest floor moisture content was the best predictor. The results showed that litter quality variables define the potential rates of microbial decomposition rates within and between trees, but adverse environmental conditions created by a tree canopy can also significantly affect decomposition rates. The closer distance to the stem significantly reduces litter decay rates by changing environmental conditions (especially forest floor moisture content) which can reduce microbial activity, and thus, the effects of tree canopy on litter decomposition rates should be taken into an account when calculating or comparing litter decomposition dynamics of forest ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occurrence of Heterobasidion annosum s.l. was investigated in 15 coniferous stands in the Giresun and Pontic Mountains in north-eastern Turkey. Basidiocarps of the fungus were found in 11 stands. Fifty-two basidiocarp specimens of Heterobasidion were collected from stumps of Abies nordmanniana ssp. nordmanniana and two from stumps of Picea orientalis. Pure cultures were isolated from the basidiocarps and identified with the aid of mating tests. Forty-five (90%) of the specimens collected from A. nordmanniana were identified as H. abietinum and five (10%) as H. annosum s.s. The former species was also found twice on P. orientalis. This is the first report of H. annosum s.s. for Turkey and the first report of H. abietinum on P. orientalis. Heterobasidion abietinum seems to be mostly a saprotroph on A. nordmanniana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract??The aim of this study was to determine changes in crystallinity and crystalline unit cell type of heat-treated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.) and Uluda? fir (Abies nordmannianastev. subsp.bornmuellerianaMattf.) wood samples by means of FT-IR spectroscopic method. Heat treatment was applied on the test samples in an oven at three different temperatures (120, 150, and 180?C) and for two different periods of time (6 and 10?h) under atmospheric pressure. It was designated that crystallinity of both Scots pine and Uluda? fir wood samples increased during heat treatment depending on the duration. However, monoclinic structure in crystalline unit cells of Scots pine and Uluda? fir wood samples converted to triclinic structure when heat treated. It was estimated that monoclinic structure was dominant in the crystalline unit cell. It was established that the crystalline structure of Scots pine wood samples was more affected by heat treatment than that of Uluda? fir wood samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Main branches of Abies nordmanniana Spach. were examined through their first growth season from subapical buds around the leader bud to fully expanded shoots. Plagiotropism was evident in branch orientation, which was almost horizontal, as well as in the orientation of buds developing on the branches. Auxin transport capacity was predominantly basipetal (> 90%) and consistently higher in the middle part of the branch than in the distal and proximal ends. Auxin transport capacity was higher on the dorsal side of the branch during the short initial hyponastic growth phase, but the difference disappeared when the branch became horizontal. No dorsal-ventral differences could be detected in young horizontal branches in concentrations of indole acetic acid, cytokinins, gibberellins or abscisic acid. Branch orientation was unaffected by decapitation of the leader apex or by decapitation and replacement with exogenous auxin. However, decapitation resulted in a less plagiotropic bud arrangement on the branches, and auxin application to the leader bud scar counteracted this effect. Thus, a signal originating in the stem seems to be involved in regulating branch bud positioning, whereas the horizontal branch orientation must rely on a different mechanism, presumably autonomic within the branch. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Forty-five basidiocarp specimens of Heterobasidion were collected from native Abies species in three locations in western Turkey: A. nordmanniana ssp. bornmülleriana in Bolu province, A. nordmanniana ssp. equi-trojani in Balikesir province and A. cilicica in Antalya province. Pure cultures were isolated from the basidiocarps and identified to the species level with the aid of mating tests. All the specimens proved to belong to the species Heterobasidion abietinum. This root rot fungus is common in the forests investigated and appears to be relatively virulent on Abies in Turkey. This is the first report of H. abietinum outside Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A paternity analysis using five microsatellite markers was conducted in a Danish clonal seed orchard with 13 Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach clones. The purpose was to investigate potential seed-orchard dysfunctions, with special emphasis on nonequal pollen contributions and selfing. Male paternity was found for 232 seedlings germinated from seeds collected on three ramets, each of eight clones, and the relative contribution of each clone to the gene pool of male gametes was calculated. Furthermore, 49 ramets were genotyped to check for erroneous grafting. The effect of an unbalanced male contribution was quantified by means of two measures: (1) the status number (NS), which reflects buildup of coancestry in the seed-orchard crop as a result of a low number of clones and an unequal male contribution, and (2) the asymptotic variance effective population number (Ne(v)). The contributions by pollen donors from the 13 clones were highly skewed. Three clones were fathers to more than 75% of the progenies, while making up only 24% of the ramets in the seed orchard. Four clones sired no progenies at all. The unequal contribution on the male side corresponded to NS = 4.2 and Ne(v) = 5.8. Some selfing was observed, which may give rise to concern if clonal seed orchards with few clones are established. The estimated maximum pollen contamination from outside the seed orchard was 4.3%. No grafting–labelling errors were identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach is a widely grown Christmas tree in Denmark, from where it is exported to most of Europe. An ongoing breeding programme is taking place, and as a tool for that, we report the development of five polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers. To investigate the potential for transferring the markers to other species in the Abies genus, polymerase chain reaction amplification was tested in 19 other species. In general, amplification occurred in a very high proportion of the tested species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caucasian fir (Abies nordmanniana (Link.) Spach.) was treated using the full-cell process with heated tanalith-C at elevated temperatures from 5 to 70 ºC above and below the fibre saturation point (FSP: 32.1%) (in 40% and 20% moisture content (MC) levels). Thermal treatability was determined on the basis of preservative uptake (the percentage of void volume filled, VVF%) in transverse flow (a combination of tangential and radial directions) and triplex flow (based on all 3 flow directions). To characterise the treatability, analysis of the coefficient of transverse thermal conductivity was also performed above and below the FSP. Thermal conductivity (Tc) increased markedly with increasing temperature at either MC level. Tc was found to be relatively high at 40% MC due to the contribution of free water in the lumens. However, VVF% did not follow the evolution of the temperature in both flow directions at either MC level. The VVF% variation seemed to depend on the FSP, e.g., it showed almost a parabolic trend in 20% MC, and reached the highest values in either direction at around 30 ºC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Needle retention is an important trait when selecting for high quality Christmas trees. Nordmann fir [Abies nordmanniana (Stev.) Spach.] is generally considered to have good needle retention, but recent research has shown that when cut trees are allowed to dry, significant needle loss problems can develop. This has the potential to limit the use of this species in situations where trees are harvested early, shipped long distances, sold in warm weather markets and displayed for extended periods of time. A set of 39 provenances where tested to identify provenance differences in needle retention. Branches where collected in two consecutive years in October in 1999 and 2000 and November 2000. Small branch samples where cut and displayed indoors under controlled conditions and allowed to dry. Strong provenance differences in needle loss were seen for all three test dates. No significant interactions were seen among the October collections, but significant rank changes occurred from October to November. Predicted (BLUP) provenance mean values ranged between 11% and 27% for needle loss when branches where allowed to dry, averaging all three tests. Despite only one test location, the study clearly indicates that it should be possible to select for provenances with generally better needle retention characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of moisture content and wood density on the preservative uptake (on the basis of the percentage of void volume filled (VVF%)) of Caucasian fir ( Abies nordmanniana(Link.) Spach.) was studied in various levels of moisture content (MC). VVF% was measured in 11 MC regimes (7 of which were designed to be below the fibre saturation point (FSP)) consequtively nominated using a conventional kiln. All the samples were treated with CCA-tanalith C via a mild schedule of full-cell impregnation. A significant correspondence between MC and both wood density and VVF% was established and an attempt was thus made to correlate VVF% with porosity (the fractional void volume) at respective moisture contents. The significance of these changes was discussed in relation to the FSP, the activity of which was barely detectable. MC values above the FSP stimulate and decrease the retention of preservative in the wood voids, whereas MC values below the FSP influence the preservative uptake due to the effect of the voids available in wood. It was found that there were significant differences in VVF% between the regimes of MC above the FSP, whereas there was quite a different trend at MC values just below the FSP. In this range, there were no differences in VVF% (figures in parentheses) between the levels of MC at 10% (61.6) and 20% (60.3) but there was a significant difference between 22% (59.4) and 28% (56.7). These observations suggest that MC at 22% (close to 20%) could be highlighted as the exact value for Caucasian fir, and hence it may be best to preferentially kiln dry this species to a target moisture content of 22%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the Christmas trees produced in Great Britain. According to the British Christmas Tree Growers Association (BCTA), about 8.5 million Christmas trees were bought in Great Britain in 2008 and roughly 50-60% of these were Nordmann fir. Nordmann fir's popularity is attributed to its superior needle retention ability against Norway spruce trees. Firs have waxy covering on their needle surfaces that helps minimize water loss, a key factor that determines the rate of needle shredding. However, grower Adrian Morgan argues that a Norway spruce can often do almost as well by keeping the base of the cut tree immersed in water. Guidelines on how to identify the most successful needle retainers are also provided.