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Quality of life is dependent upon the extent to which behavioural needs are met, and the balance between pleasant and unpleasant lifetime experiences. In Part II of this systematic review, articles (n = 109) relating to horse-human interactions were reviewed to identify behavioural evidence of their positive or negative impact on the horse. The number of articles (n = 22) relating to the recognition of pain in horses, indicated the importance of identifying health issues, which are also likely to increase the aversiveness of interactions. These and articles relating to emotional reactivity testing in horses (n = 19), the behaviour of horses during handling and management procedures (n = 17), behaviour of the horse when ridden (n = 17), non-procedural horse-human interactions (n = 13), horse behaviour during transportation (n = 12) and behaviour during training other than when ridden (n = 9) were reviewed. During most interactions, horse behaviour is controlled and/or restricted by the human, masking negative or positive signs, and may be confounded by factors including fear and individual differences. In situations involving freedom of movement, positive experiences of horses with humans were associated with approach behaviour, negative ones with avoidance, but training could affect both. Undoubtedly, change is needed to reduce the extent to which interactions with humans are unpleasant for the horse. Only when the needs of the horse are fulfilled and interactions with humans are predominantly pleasurable will their quality of life improve.

The welfare of horses involved in sport and leisure activities has come under increasing scrutiny, both from within the equine sector and from the public. A systematic review of scientific evidence was conducted to derive observable, evidence-based behavioural measures of positive or negative affective state and factors relating to quality of life in the domestic horse (Equus caballus). Two separate searches (including the terms ‘emotion/affect’, or ‘stress’) were conducted, with 179 articles being retained. In Part I of this two-part review (companion paper published simultaneously), articles relating to the extent to which the species-specific needs of the horse are fulfilled in the home environment (n = 21), in relation to social grouping (n = 20), and during weaning (n = 14) were reviewed. Experimental tests of affective state in relation to housing and management (n = 8), and studies relating to stereotypical behaviour (n = 7) were also included. Opportunities for behavioural expression were dependent upon the provision of social and physical resources. Withdrawn or agitated behaviours in situ, avoidance behaviour during handling and agonistic intra-species interactions were indicative of negative affective state. Affiliative intra-specific social interactions, and forage ingestion were considered positive signs. For horses to live a good life, their need for space, companionship, and forage must be prioritised from birth and throughout their lives.

The international governing body for equestrian sports, the Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI), states that the welfare of the horse must be paramount and never subordinated to competitive or commercial influences. However, there is growing unease about welfare issues from both within and outside the sport. The aim of this study was to understand stakeholder perceptions of current welfare issues within equestrian sport, determine whether there is scope for change, and explore attitudes towards welfare assessment. Participants (n = 48) from equestrian sport (n = 38) and animal welfare research (n = 10) attended a workshop that included welfare-related presentations and focus group sessions. The focus group sessions were recorded, anonymised and analysed using thematic analysis. Conflict between the demands of competition and the needs of the horse was identified as a key welfare challenge. Although the physical health of equine athletes is closely monitored, horses’ psychological needs are sometimes overlooked. Participants recognised that improving competition practices may not be as impactful as improving the general management and training of horses. The term “quality of life” was considered preferable to “welfare”, which had negative connotations. Participants appreciated the idea of incorporating formal welfare assessments into their training and competition plans but stated that existing tools are rarely used and are not deemed feasible for real-life conditions.

Zoo animal management procedures which lead to changes to social groups can cause disruption in social hierarchies and the temporary breakdown of social relationships. Animals have different roles in social networks. Understanding individual positions in social networks is important for effective management and ensuring positive welfare for all animals. Using elephants as a case study, the aim of this research was to investigate temporal social dynamics in zoo animals. Behavioural data were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants housed at seven zoos and safari parks in the UK and Ireland. Social interactions were defined as positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical or negative non-physical. Social network analysis explored social relationships including the fluidity of networks over time and dyadic reciprocity. Social interaction networks were found to be fluid but did not follow a seasonal pattern. Positive interaction networks tended to include the entire social group whereas negative interactions were restricted to specific individuals. Unbalanced ties were observed within dyads, suggesting potential inequalities in relationships. This could impact on individual experiences and welfare. This research highlights subtle temporal dynamics in zoo elephants with the potential for species-level differences. Similar temporal dynamics may also be present in other socially housed zoo species. This research thus provides evidence for the importance of understanding the social networks of zoo animals over longer periods of time. Understanding social networks enables pro-active and evidence-based management approaches. Further research should seek to identify the minimum sampling efforts for social networks in a range of species, to enable the implementation of regular monitoring of social networks and thus improve the welfare of social species under human care.

Unintentional injuries are a growing global public health problem, causing mortality, morbidity, and disability among children. The rates of injuries were highest among children under the age of 5 years, and this forms a significant burden on health care systems, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Mothers have a major role to play in the prevention of home injuries, as expressed in many international reports. There is a paucity of research in this area regarding Palestine. Therefore, this study aimed to explore mothers’ perceptions about the prevention of home injuries among children aged under 5 and the potential factors that might influence their injury prevention practices. A qualitative approach was followed, whereby 12 mothers from three settings (rural, refugee camp, and urban) in Ramallah District were purposively selected to participate in this study. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews, and the derived data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The study findings suggested that there are many similarities between the perspectives of mothers within the three settings. Most of them had a positive attitude toward preventing home injuries. However, many environmental factors affected their practice, including low economic status, the physical environment of the house, the social environment (e.g., fatalism), and the political environment. The study concluded that the causes of in-home injuries in Ramallah District are embedded within the families’ social and economic status and are influenced by the surrounding environment. Consequently, it supports the use of multiple intervention strategies within a holistic approach that acknowledges these factors to help prevent future home injuries.

The number of equines injured as a result of incidents during road transport is currently unknown in the United Kingdom. Although previous research has identified factors that affect an equine’s behavioural and physiological responses to transportation, their contribution to incident occurrence and injury risk is unclear. The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with incident occurrence and equine injury during transportation by road. An online survey was administered between 12 May 2017 and 21 July 2017 in the UK. The survey was open to those transporting equines non-commercially and comprised two sections. Questions relating to general transport behaviour were completed by all participants. Participants who had experienced an incident then provided details of these, including outcomes. Incidents were reported by 16.2% (342/2116) of participants, with details included for 399 incidents. Those participants who had a professional/competitive involvement with equines reported more incidents than those with a predominantly leisure involvement (p < 0.01). Equine behaviour was the attributed cause of 56% of incidents reported and most incidents occurred during the first hour of travel (65%). In over 50% of the incidents reported, the equine was injured, with those incidents attributed to transport vehicle malfunction being associated with the highest percentage of injury (68%). This study highlights the need for better preparation of the equine for transportation and to identify risk factors associated with transport vehicle type, design and operation.

Elephants have complex social systems that are predominantly driven by ecological factors in situ. Within zoos, elephants are held in relatively static social groups and the factors observed driving social relationships in the wild are largely absent. Little research has investigated the effect of social group factors in zoos on elephant social interactions. The aim of this research was to establish whether there is a relationship between social group factors and social behaviour, in order to identify factors that make elephant herds more or less likely to be compatible. Results will facilitate recommendations for optimum social groupings for zoo elephants. Behavioural data quantifying social interactions were collected between January 2016 and February 2017 at seven UK and Irish zoos and safari parks from 10 African and 22 Asian elephants. Social interactions were split into four categories: positive physical, positive non-physical, negative physical and negative non-physical. Social interactions were related to age (positive physical higher and negative non-physical lower in calves than adults), personality (elephants with higher sociability scores engaged in more positive interactions and less negative interactions), presence of calves in the herd (herds with calves had more positive non-physical), relatedness to other elephants in the herd (positive non-physical were higher when relatives were in the group and negative non-physical were higher between unrelated elephants) and species (Asian elephants engaged in more positive non-physical than African elephants). A greater understanding of factors that may contribute to the success of zoo-elephant social groups is important for individual and herd welfare as it will enable evidence-based decisions which have minimal impact on social structures to be executed. This knowledge will enable proactive management approaches to be undertaken and will thus be paramount in ensuring optimal welfare for elephant herds moving forwards.

The gaze behaviour of riders during their approach to a jump was investigated using a mobile eye tracking device (ASL Mobile Eye). The timing, frequency and duration of fixations on the jump and the percentage of time when their point of gaze (POG) was located elsewhere were assessed. Fixations were identified when the POG remained on the jump for 100 ms or longer. The jumping skill of experienced but non-elite riders (n = 10) was assessed by means of a questionnaire. Their gaze behaviour was recorded as they completed a course of three identical jumps five times. The speed and timing of the approach was calculated. Gaze behaviour throughout the overall approach and during the last five strides before take-off was assessed following frame-by-frame analyses. Differences in relation to both round and jump number were found. Significantly longer was spent fixated on the jump during round 2, both during the overall approach and during the last five strides (p

Adaptations of the mammalian eye have tailored each to its own particular ecological niche. On the one hand, it would appear that the horse is best served by a system that can keep “half an eye” on everything, while the human benefits from focussing on more specific aspects of the visual array. By adapting a range of techniques, originally used to assess human visual ability, it has been possible to compare the human visual experience with that of the horse. In general, the results of the majority of these comparative studies indicate that the visual capabilities of the horse are broadly inferior to the human equivalents in acuity, accommodation, and colour vision. However, both the horse and human abilities to judge distance and depth perception may be quite comparable while equine vision is certainly superior to that of human's under scotopic conditions. Individual variation in visual ability, which is routinely taken for granted in humans, is also likely to occur in the horse. Such variation would undoubtedly affect equine performance, particularly in terms of expectation of athletic competitive outcomes in modern equitation. In addition to such considerations as conformation and athletic ability, a detailed assessment of the visual ability might contribute to a more accurate prediction of future performance characteristics in the horse. Although further investigation is required in order to appreciate fully both the capabilities and limitations of the equine visual system, the information currently available should now be considered and applied more rigorously both in the design of the equine environment and in the implementation of contemporary equine training methods. This need is the greatest in areas of equestrian sport where the outcomes of either or both equine and human visual judgements can be critical, the cost of failure often high and occasionally results in fatal consequences for both parties of the horse-human dyad.