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Car dependence brings along many negative social and environmental externalities that policymakers and stakeholders need to consider. Nonetheless, the concept is not well defined and lacks a clear framework regarding its determinants and mechanisms, which also leads to problems in terms of its operationalisation. Therefore, this paper proposes a conceptualisation and operationalisation of car dependence, which can serve as a basis for further research and policy. We define car dependence as the extent to which an individual is incapable to participate in location-based activities without a car in a satisfactory way. This definition is based on the theoretical background of the capabilities approach and the concept of motility and also linked to the concept of accessibility. Our conceptual model consists of seven components, most of which have been considered separately in previous conceptualisations, namely the land use system, transport system, natural environment, temporal component, social environment, and individual objective/subjective characteristics. These components range from being external to the individual (e.g. the land use system) to internal (e.g. individual features). Considering these components jointly emphasises the importance of looking at car dependence in a holistic, unifying way. This approach contributes to a better understanding of car dependence that goes beyond the explicit analysis of components in previous research. In addition, we provide a systematic approach to operationalising car dependence that contributes to a more comparable approach to measuring car dependence. Researchers have to decide whether they want to examine car dependence via its components or via self-report by individuals, whether they want to study the full set of components or only a subset, and whether they want to consider perceptions or factual information about external components. Therefore, our conceptualisation and operationalisation provide valuable new insights into car dependence regarding new research directions and policy approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The socio-cultural context of automobility is integrated into a quantitative study. • Automobility Engagement (AE) is used to operationalise the socio-cultural context. • Past car use and car use reduction intentions are regressed on AE and control variables. • AE facets perceived car dependence and environmental concern are particularly important. Currently, the car holds the position as the primary mode of transportation in Germany and many other countries, serving diverse purposes. This widespread reliance has resulted in negative impacts on individuals, societies, as well as the environment and the climate. Reducing car use would therefore come with considerable benefits. While the role of many socio-economic, structural and psychological factors in car use reduction is well established, the socio-cultural context of automobility is not well conceptualised and integrated into quantitative studies. The goal of this paper was to explore the role of the socio-cultural context of automobility, differentiating between past and future car use. To this end, we applied Automobility Engagement (AE) as a concept operationalising consumer interactions with cars within the automobility system. In regression models predicting past car use (i.e., one week of actual travel behaviour) and the intention to reduce car use in the future, we tested the explanatory power of AE's seven facets in addition to selected socio-economic, structural and psychological factors. We recruited a sample of more than 2,000 participants in the German federal states of Baden-Württemberg and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania in the summer of 2023. Results showed that the AE facets perceived car dependence, concern about the negative environmental effects of car use, house ownership preferences and car identity made small but significant contributions to our models whilst the three remaining AE facets did not. We found stronger associations with several socio-economic, structural and psychological variables such as owning a car, degree of urbanisation and transportation habits. We discuss the relevance of AE as an operationalisation of the socio-cultural context of automobility, its relatedness to other psychological factors and derive implications for policy design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policies such as the 15 Minute City seek to reduce car use by ensuring the spatial concentration and proximity of everyday activities. This paper examines how proximity to nearby services in Barcelona affects car use and analyzes whether proximity to everyday destinations affects modal choice and car trip durations differently. By matching self-reported travel behavior data and a series of GIS-based minimum walking travel times to 25 distinct everyday destinations, we are able to assess the links between proximity availability and actual car use. Our findings indicate that closer everyday destinations influence car usage by reducing the frequency of car-based modal choices, though they do not alter travel distances for those who continue to use cars. This study contributes to evidencing the effect of the 15 Minute City's premise regarding car usage reduction.

Car dependency leads to a variety of societal problems and challenges, not least environmental ones. It is thus not only relevant but also critical to better understand the determinants of car ownership and use. Among those contributing factors, the role of subjective factors is often acknowledged to be important, yet not well understood. We conduct a systematic review of the literature regarding the effect of such motives on car ownership and usage. Based on the commonalities found in the reviewed articles, we identify and describe the five most relevant subjective factors in detail: (i) instrumental motives and autonomy, (ii) affective motives, (iii) symbolic motives, (iv) social norms, and (v) environmental motives. We synthesise these findings in a car ownership/use motives model, discuss implications for public policy and outline directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have shown that the number of cars, and car use will grow as socioeconomic conditions improve in Latin America. This situation will threaten sustainability in the main cities of the region. This article investigates daily car use determinants for people with access to cars. Urban sustainability would not be so endangered if people with access to cars forego such vehicles for commuting. The article resort to the Population and Housing Census 2020 in Mexico to research how heads of households with access to cars commute in a daily basis. It is discovered that low socio-economic status increases the likelihood of not using the family car for commuting, along with environmental awareness, particularly for affluent heads of households. Therefore, it can be assumed that environmental awareness could refrain car use once national and domestic economies improve in Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Car use in the sprawled urban region of Noord-Brabant is above the Dutch average. Does this reflect car dependency due to the lack of competitive alternative modes? Or are there other factors at play, such as differences in preferences? This article aims to determine the nature of car use in the region and explore to what extent this reflects car dependency. The data, comprising 3,244 respondents was derived from two online questionnaires among employees from the High-Tech Campus (2018) and the TU/e-campus (2019) in Eindhoven. Travel times to work by car, public transport, cycling, and walking were calculated based on the respondents’ residential location. Indicators for car dependency were developed using thresholds for maximum commuting times by bicycle and maximum travel time ratios between public transport and car. Based on these thresholds, approximately 40% of the respondents were categorised as car-dependent. Of the non-car-dependent respondents, 31% use the car for commuting. A binomial logit model revealed that higher residential densities and closer proximity to a railway station reduce the odds of car commuting. Travel time ratios also have a significant influence on the expected directions. Mode choice preferences (e.g., comfort, flexibility, etc.) also have a significant, and strong, impact. These results highlight the importance of combining hard (e.g., improvements in infrastructure or public transport provision) and soft (information and persuasion) measures to reduce car use and car dependency in commuting trips.

Access to a private car has established itself as a critical control on mobility and access to opportunities for residents living in a diverse range of settings, globally. Across cities of the Global South, the benefits of private car access are often intensified by the absence of viable alternative modes of travel. This article explores the influence of private car access and mobility in relation to residents living in “ger district” areas of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia’s capital city. These peri-urban areas are informally created when rural migrants set up home on the edge of the city, initially using mobile felt dwellings called “ger” that become augmented or replaced by permanent structures over time. An absence of forward planning as well as unmade roads and hilly topography mean that the ger districts are often poorly served by public transport, while the low density of the built environment also means that informal transport services can be limited in coverage and relatively expensive. This article utilises a database of household questionnaires collected in 2020 to compare mobility patterns and accessibility between car-owning and non-car-owning households in three case study ger districts, capturing seasonal differences between the extreme cold of the wintertime and warmer summer conditions. The findings not only reveal stark mobility and access differences in relation to car ownership but also discrepancies between car ownership and actual car use for important and routine journeys. This indicates that despite a lack of public transport available, many households opt to use what public transport they can. This pattern provides a potentially important basis for future policies that aim to limit car use in order to reduce traffic congestion and broaden access to the city for non-car-owning households by providing more accessible public transport.

Carsharing contributes to sustainable urban mobility by reducing private car ownership and use. Thus, policy-makers and planners need to know how cities can foster carsharing and the related benefits. Decentralized mobility hubs are an emerging approach to supporting carsharing. These hubs provide designated carsharing parking spots in the public street spaces of urban residential neighborhoods. The objective is to embed carsharing services into the immediate residential environments of urban households. Thus, the hubs are intended to make carsharing more accessible, reliable, and convenient. However, there is a lack of empirical insights into the impact of decentralized mobility hubs on carsharing. This research uses survey data on carsharing users in the inner city of Hamburg, Germany, to appreciate the actual effects of such hubs on car ownership, transport mode usage, and the perception of carsharing. Decentralized mobility hubs have existed in several high-density residential neighborhoods in Hamburg since 2017. Our findings suggest that the use of these hubs leads to a substantially more positive perception of carsharing and, as a consequence, to a greater willingness of carsharing users to forgo car ownership. Ultimately, by supporting the reduction of private car ownership, the hubs promote not only carsharing, but also the use of other sustainable modes of transportation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Built environment (BE) planning and parking policy are two major strategies for restricting car use. However, researchers usually explore the independent associations of BE and parking policy with the use of the car in commuting, and most earlier studies are limited to investigating the benefits of integrating them. This study adopts a machine learning approach to explore the associations of home and workplace BE features and parking policy with the use of the car in commuting and whether the associations of BE features are moderated by parking policy. Results suggest that workplace BE features have larger collective contributions to the use of the car in commuting than home BE features. All BE features have nonlinear associations with the use of the car in commuting, and the nonlinear patterns differ across home and workplace neighborhoods. Moreover, free parking and parking convenience have significant moderating effects on the connection between BE and the use of the car in commuting. Thus, planning practitioners and policy makers should highlight the importance of coordinating BE planning and policy making to restrict the use of the car in commuting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts at changing individual car use behavior towards increased use of public transport have so far largely failed. This paper will argue that the continued rise in individual car use needs to be understood as part of an overall trend towards protecting oneself instead of protecting the environment, i.e. an individualized sensory response to an omnipresent collective threat. The car industry serves this trend perfectly with features that turn cars into "cozy" cocoons that protect passengers from the dangers of the outside world. Although the Covid-19 pandemic has fostered this trend, it has been inherent in the resistant nature of cars for decades. Thus, today cars are increasingly used for their sensory aspects related to safety and protection from an infectious, dirty, and violent outside world. This trend is supported by highly individualized cushioning and comfort factors that make cars "special places." Any strategies for promoting alternative forms of transport thus need to consider these sensory developments when creating incentives for people to travel by train, bus, etc. instead of driving cars. The paper ends with a few speculations on how public transport could be made more attractive given the current role of sensory perception in car driving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aging population of the Global North is increasingly car dependent, with repercussions for health and well-being. This article analyzes how car use interacts with living an active life and how this has changed over time in Sweden. National time use data were used to analyze change in two cross sections of older people (65–84 years old) over a ten-year period (2000/01–2010/11). Previous studies concentrated on the relationship between travel behavior as such and older adult’s access to driver’s licenses and cars. We offer an integrated approach that includes all daily activities as we explore the changing social distribution of car use, as well as how different levels of car use are associated with time spent on active aging activities that benefit individuals and society.We conclude that an increasing proportion of the older population in Sweden are moderate to heavy car users and identify convergence over time between car use by older women and older men. We also find that heavy car users spend more time traveling to active aging activities. At first glance, this finding suggest that older people in Sweden are dependent on a car for living an active life. However, examination of how much time is actually spent on active activities after travel time is excluded reveals that few significant differences remain. This nuances the idea that access to a car is a necessity for spending time in activities that contribute to society and to personal well-being in old age.

Car use in the sprawled urban region of Noord-Brabant is above the Dutch average. Does this reflect car dependency due to the lack of competitive alternative modes? Or are there other factors at play, such as differences in preferences? This article aims to determine the nature of car use in the region and explore to what extent this reflects car dependency. The data, comprising 3,244 respondents was derived from two online questionnaires among employees from the High-Tech Campus (2018) and the TU/e-campus (2019) in Eindhoven. Travel times to work by car, public transport, cycling, and walking were calculated based on the respondents' residential location. Indicators for car dependency were developed using thresholds for maximum commuting times by bicycle and maximum travel time ratios between public transport and car. Based on these thresholds, approximately 40% of the respondents were categorised as car-dependent. Of the non-car-dependent respondents, 31% use the car for commuting. A binomial logit model revealed that higher residential densities and closer proximity to a railway station reduce the odds of car commuting. Travel time ratios also have a significant influence on the expected directions. Mode choice preferences (e.g., comfort, flexibility, etc.) also have a significant, and strong, impact. These results highlight the importance of combining hard (e.g., improvements in infrastructure or public transport provision) and soft (information and persuasion) measures to reduce car use and car dependency in commuting trips. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to a private car has established itself as a critical control on mobility and access to opportunities for residents living in a diverse range of settings, globally. Across cities of the Global South, the benefits of private car access are often intensified by the absence of viable alternative modes of travel. This article explores the influence of private car access and mobility in relation to residents living in "ger district" areas of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia's capital city. These peri-urban areas are informally created when rural migrants set up home on the edge of the city, initially using mobile felt dwellings called "ger" that become augmented or replaced by permanent structures over time. An absence of forward planning as well as unmade roads and hilly topography mean that the ger districts are often poorly served by public transport, while the low density of the built environment also means that informal transport services can be limited in coverage and relatively expensive. This article utilises a database of household questionnaires collected in 2020 to compare mobility patterns and accessibility between car-owning and non-car-owning households in three case study ger districts, capturing seasonal differences between the extreme cold of the wintertime and warmer summer conditions. The findings not only reveal stark mobility and access differences in relation to car ownership but also discrepancies between car ownership and actual car use for important and routine journeys. This indicates that despite a lack of public transport available, many households opt to use what public transport they can. This pattern provides a potentially important basis for future policies that aim to limit car use in order to reduce traffic congestion and broaden access to the city for non-car-owning households by providing more accessible public transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research responds to claims that status motivates car use. It extends understandings of what status is and of how status influences car use practices. The paper begins with a theoretical exploration of the concept of status and continues with a case study exploring how individuals in Christchurch, New Zealand, relate to status concerns associated with cars. Drawing on in-depth qualitative research, the paper finds that participants conceptualised status in terms of multidimensional hybrid assemblages of meaning. Further, a car had to match a person's wider social and cultural context in order to perform as a status symbol. Cars that symbolised a sense of intentional accomplishment or progression were most often associated with desired dimensions of status. The paper concludes by noting that status symbolism reflects a complex interplay of social dynamics, and that status is more than a characteristic of a material object. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The paper examines whether the widespread assumption holds that younger birth cohorts (referred to as Millennials or Generation Y) act as pioneers of changing everyday mobility. Methodology Based on the time-series dataset "Mobility in Germany" (Mobilität in Deutschland), cohort-specific changes in everyday bicycle and car use that have occurred between 2002 and 2017 are analyzed. The empirical analyses are differentiated by age-group and settlement type. Additionally, socio-structural factors are taken into account. Results The results show a decline in the predominant everyday use of cars in metropolitan cities, especially among Generation Y. However, the Millennials do not emerge as pioneers of the trend toward predominant bicycle use. The results challenge the assumption that changes in everyday mobility are essentially driven by generational change.

The motives for car use and the personal norms for reducing car use have been studied to understand the motivational processes underlying car use. Motives have been classified as instrumental, symbolic and affective, while personal norms have been classified as introjected and integrated. The aim of this study is to validate scales measuring motives for car use and personal norms for car use reduction in Mexico City. Both scales were applied, together with a measure of car use, to a sample of 257 motorists. The results indicate a good fit for the three-factor model for the motives for car use scale and a good fit for the two-factor model for personal norms for car use reduction. A linear regression model was run, which showed that both constructs explain 21.3% of variance in car use, and the significant predictors are instrumental motives and integrated norms. Both scales show initial evidence of reliability, validity and parsimony. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Frequent car use contributes to health and environmental issues such as air pollution, climate change and obesity. Active and sustainable mobility (bike, walk, public transport, car sharing) may address these issues. Different strategies have been implemented in past research, involving hard levers, aimed at modifying the economical or geographical context (e.g., free public transport), and soft levers, aimed at modifying psychological processes (e.g., personalised transport advice). However, few studies have combined both hard and soft levers. In addition, few have used robust methodologies (e.g., randomised controlled trials), followed behavioural changes in the long-term, and been anchored in behaviour change theories. InterMob aims to address these limits by implementing a 24-month randomised controlled trial including hard and soft levers. The objectives of InterMob are to a) evaluate the effectiveness of an experimental arm versus an active controlled arm, and b) identify the processes of mobility change. Methods Regular car users living in Grenoble (N = 300) will be recruited and randomised to one of the two arms. The experimental arm consists in a six-month intervention combining hard levers (free access to transport/bikes), and soft levers (e.g., personalised transport advice). The control arm consists in a six-month intervention aimed at raising awareness on air pollution and its health effects. Both arms will include eight evaluation weeks (spread out over 24 months) based on a GPS, an accelerometer, and a pollution sensor. Moreover, participants will complete mobility logbooks and surveys measuring psychological constructs, socio-economical, and socio-spatial characteristics. Discussion InterMob will assess the effectiveness of two interventions aimed at reducing car use within regular car users in the short-, mid- and long-term. Moreover, InterMob will allow to better understand the psychological processes of behaviour change, and the socio-economical and geographical conditions under which the intervention is efficient in reducing car use. Finally, the benefits of mobility change in terms of physical activity, quality of life, and exposure to pollution will be quantified. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov : NCT05096000 on 27/10/2021 (retrospectively registered).

Background: The paper examines whether the widespread assumption holds that younger birth cohorts (referred to as Millennials or Generation Y) act as pioneers of changing everyday mobility. Methodology: Based on the time-series dataset "Mobility in Germany" (Mobilität in Deutschland), cohort-specific changes in everyday bicycle and car use that have occurred between 2002 and 2017 are analyzed. The empirical analyses are differentiated by age-group and settlement type. Additionally, socio-structural factors are taken into account. Results: The results show a decline in the predominant everyday use of cars in metropolitan cities, especially among Generation Y. However, the Millennials do not emerge as pioneers of the trend toward predominant bicycle use. The results challenge the assumption that changes in everyday mobility are essentially driven by generational change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impacts of shared e-scooters on modal shifts have received increased attention in recent years. This study provides a review of the literature for modal shifts in the US and other countries. The profile of shared e-scooter users is rather similar to that of station-based and free-floating bikeshare programs. The empirical data reveal that people use shared e-scooters in place of cars at substantial rates, especially in many US cities, which suggests that in many locations shared e-scooters may be a good strategy for reducing car dependence. The use of shared e-scooters as a complement to public transit varies highly by city, highlighting how technology, regulations, and incentives may be needed in some cities to ensure modal integration and harvest the potential societal benefits from the introduction of shared e-scooters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This dataset contains the full results of a survey on mobility patterns after the Covid-19 pandemic. The survey was conducted in the second trimester of 2021 and collected information from 10000 respondents across 20 urban areas. The questions covered demographic and socio-economic characteristics, employment and job related situation, the use of technological alternatives in daily activities, mobility patterns (trip frequency, purpose, destination, mode, level of comfort), and perceptions as regards the usability of each transport option. Particular emphasis was given to the comparison of current activity to that before the pandemic. The survey combined an online (Computer-Assisted Web Interviews, CAWI) approach with telephone (Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews, CATI) interviews. The sample in each city was representative of the local demographic and socio-economic profile according to age, sex, employment situation, education and urbanization.

Background: Frequent car use contributes to health and environmental issues such as air pollution, climate change and obesity. Active and sustainable mobility (bike, walk, public transport, car sharing) may address these issues. Different strategies have been implemented in past research, involving hard levers, aimed at modifying the economical or geographical context (e.g., free public transport), and soft levers, aimed at modifying psychological processes (e.g., personalised transport advice). However, few studies have combined both hard and soft levers. In addition, few have used robust methodologies (e.g., randomised controlled trials), followed behavioural changes in the long-term, and been anchored in behaviour change theories. InterMob aims to address these limits by implementing a 24-month randomised controlled trial including hard and soft levers. The objectives of InterMob are to a) evaluate the effectiveness of an experimental arm versus an active controlled arm, and b) identify the processes of mobility change.Methods: Regular car users living in Grenoble (N = 300) will be recruited and randomised to one of the two arms. The experimental arm consists in a six-month intervention combining hard levers (free access to transport/bikes), and soft levers (e.g., personalised transport advice). The control arm consists in a six-month intervention aimed at raising awareness on air pollution and its health effects. Both arms will include eight evaluation weeks (spread out over 24 months) based on a GPS, an accelerometer, and a pollution sensor. Moreover, participants will complete mobility logbooks and surveys measuring psychological constructs, socio-economical, and socio-spatial characteristics.Discussion: InterMob will assess the effectiveness of two interventions aimed at reducing car use within regular car users in the short-, mid- and long-term. Moreover, InterMob will allow to better understand the psychological processes of behaviour change, and the socio-economical and geographical conditions under which the intervention is efficient in reducing car use. Finally, the benefits of mobility change in terms of physical activity, quality of life, and exposure to pollution will be quantified.Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov : NCT05096000 on 27/10/2021 (retrospectively registered). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Practical necessity—the amount of time spouses that spend on household-serving or work-related activities—is the primary determinant of automobile use for both men and women. • Women are more likely to be the primary houseworker than men. • Women have substantially more exclusive access to the household vehicle than their male partners. • The findings reflect the persistence of the gender division of household labor and the role of the car in its maintenance. • The use of alternative modes of transportation is high among spouses who travel when the vehicle is in use by their partners. We examine the role of gender in access to household resources, in particular the household automobile. Drawing on data from the 2012 California Household Travel Survey, we isolate the determinants of vehicle use within dual-earner, dual-driver, heterosexual households in which drivers share a single vehicle. We test four gender-related hypotheses: the role of disparities in economic power, practical necessity related to the household division of labor, gender norms, and gender preferences. We find that practical necessity—the amount of time that spouses spend on household-serving or work-related activities—is the primary determinant of automobile use for both men and women. In contrast to previous research, we find that women have substantially more exclusive access to the household vehicle than their male partners. Rather than a measure of equality, this finding reflects the persistence of the gender division of household labor and the role of the car in its maintenance. The study underscores the broader need for policies to equalize gender roles both within and between the home and the workplace, as well as a role for transportation policies that serve the needs of household members who do not have primary use of the household car. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• COVID-19 has altered the mobility patterns and perceptions of bike sharing users. • The percentage of users combining bike sharing with public transport has decreased. • Bike sharing is perceived to be safer than public transport. • The importance of bike sharing as an alternative to public transport has increased. COVID-19 has dramatically impacted urban mobility, of which public transport (PT) has been particularly affected. With PT ridership plummeting due to infection fears and many people returning to work, there is a danger of a steep rise in car use that would exacerbate environmental and health problems. Therefore, other modes such as bike sharing should be considered as potential alternatives during the coronavirus pandemic. This study focuses on assessing how coronavirus has impacted bike sharing by implementing a travel behaviour survey to the users of GIRA , the bike sharing system (BSS) of Lisbon. While the coronavirus has led some to decrease the frequency of use or quit the system, other users have increased the usage or joined GIRA during the pandemic. Furthermore, most users who have quit or decreased the usage of GIRA justify their decision not so much on avoiding the risk of infection (although for some it is an important reason) but on having stopped commuting due to COVID-19. The survey has also revealed substantial changes not only on the usage patterns of GIRA users but also on their relationship with other modes of transport. While before the pandemic, most respondents were shifting from PT to GIRA , that percentage has declined, with an increase on the share of users replacing walking, private car, and personal cycling. Moreover, the motivations for using bike sharing related with avoiding PT and maintaining a social distance during the trip have gained more relevance. Concurrently, the perceived safety of using PT has drastically declined, and while the perceived safety of using GIRA has also decreased it was in a much smaller scale. Policy insights can be derived from this research on how bike sharing can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient urban transport system. During infectious public health crises such as COVID-19, BSS can be a viable transport alternative, not only providing the population with an affordable mode of transport where social distancing can be maintained in most of the trip but also mitigating a modal shift from PT to the private car. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analyzing the spatial-temporal distribution of travel carbon emissions will help government departments to develop effective policies and strategies for carbon emission management. This research proposes a trajectory-based analysis method to identify sources of high travel carbon emissions and the relationship between car use and travel carbon emissions. The vehicle-specific power model (VSP), which considers the effect of the vehicle operating speed on emissions, was used to estimate emissions from the travel origin to the destination. The research area was divided into grids according to the population distribution, and the grid carbon emissions (GCE) and grid average carbon emissions (GACE) were calculated. This article used several spatial measurement models to investigate the spatial-temporal trend and influencing factors of travel emissions. A case study using one month of Ningbo taxi data showed the following. 1) The concentration of emission sources was significantly reduced during the evening peak, but the proportion of the contribution was relatively high. 2) Many areas in the suburbs had a high proportion of high emitters throughout the day and not only during the commuting period. 3) Population density and car use ratio were used to explain the quantitative relationship between car use and travel emission sources. This study can guide travel carbon emission monitoring and local carbon emission reduction strategies.

Car ownership and use is a main contributor to the deterioration of air quality in cities and to global warming. There is thus a pressing need to understand their determinants in this era of increasing demand for mobility. This paper studies car ownership and use decisions in a car-dominant developing country context, and quantifies the effect of public transportation availability on these decisions. A discrete–continuous modeling framework that estimates car ownership and use simultaneously is presented. People's latent attitudes towards public transportation and the private car are also assumed to influence these decisions. The model is applied to the case of Lebanon, a developing country characterized by a high car ownership rate, a high percentage of trips made by car, and an informal public transportation system. Five policy scenarios involving potential improvements to the public transportation system, land use densification, or increase in fuel taxes were tested. The findings show that the current public transportation accessibility level has a minor impact on car ownership, but none on car usage. Only if major improvements to the public transportation services are enacted would a decrease in car ownership and usage be achieved. In such a case, model outcomes show that car ownership will be reduced in households with two cars by 5.88% and usage in general will be reduced by 15.22%. As a result, emissions and fuel consumption will be reduced by around 15%. Densification of zones outside Municipal Beirut is also a promising strategy for reducing car usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Owning a car is not related to increased life satisfaction in Beijing. • However, owning more than one car weakly contributes to higher life satisfaction. • A more expensive car does not influence travel and life satisfaction. • Infrequent car use is related to higher travel and life satisfaction. • Attitudes towards cars confound the effect of car ownership and use on well-being among car owners. Promoting subjective well-being is an important goal in urban policy. Transportation scholars increasingly evaluate transportation systems based on people's subjective well-being. This study joins this strand of efforts to answer the following research question: how do constrained car ownership and car use influence travel and life satisfaction? Empirical data were collected in Beijing where various policies had been implemented to curb the rapid growth of car ownership and mitigate traffic congestion. We answer the question by examining the effects of car ownership and car usage variables on travel and life satisfaction. Our study shows that owning multiple cars increases vehicle users' life satisfaction, but owning a car is not related to increased life satisfaction. Purchasing a more expensive car and driving cars more frequently in daily life could not increase people's life satisfaction, but infrequent car use contributes to higher travel and life satisfaction. Among vehicle users, using cars to commute is related to higher travel satisfaction but not higher life satisfaction. In contrast, using cars for non-work trips is related to higher life satisfaction but not travel satisfaction. We also find that attitudes towards the instrumental and affective roles of cars are positively related to travel and life satisfaction among car owners. Results of this paper suggest the importance of promoting sustainable transportation and behavioral education in cities like Beijing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study used sources from selected databases to provide an overview of the role of habit in choosing a mode of travel. The articles were selected from two levels. The first included selected studies that considered the psychological aspects of travel mode choice and travel mode change. These created the context for the issues of mode choice and the change of travel mode. The second level was narrower and included studies that were directly focused on the role of habit in travel mode choice or that took the role of habit into account. These studies were used as the core of the review. Subsequently, the topic of habit and travel mode choice was divided into four fields: the theoretical definition of the concept of habit, both in general and in the context of travel mode choice; the theoretical bases of the selected studies; follow-up strategies for transport-mode change; and the measurements and methods used in the field. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is the most often used theory for explaining the travel mode choice. Other approaches include the Norm Activation Model and the Value Belief Norm Theory. The aim for other approaches is usually to trigger conscious choice processes, but most reaearchers believe that travel mode choices are automatic and habitual when made in a stable context. The Comprehensive Action Determination Model is a promising theoretical integration that may be used in future research. It integrates assumptions of the TPB, Norm Activation Model, theoretical habit conception, and ipsative behaviour theory in order to build on habitual processes, intention processes, situation effects, and personal and social norms. As habit seems to have the most important role in the choice of travel modes and the possible changes, it should also be considered for mode-choice models in the automation era.

• We re-examine the controversial issue about whether or not high-quality bus service can significantly reduce car use while increasing bus use. • A SEM model is constructed that contains bus service quality, car ownership, bus use and car use. • Improving bus service quality can indeed reduce car use by attracting more travelers to the bus. • The extent of reducing car use by improving bus service quality is far less than that of increasing car use caused by car ownership. The State Council of China hopes to alleviate traffic congestion by implementing the bus priority policy. However, the policy consequences have not been satisfactory. Whether a good bus service can significantly reduce car use while increasing bus use is a confusing issue, hereto this study re-examines the interactions among bus service quality, car ownership, car use and bus use by constructing a SEM model. A sample of 334 individuals in Changzhou is used in the study. Results show that although high-quality bus service can cause a decrease in car use, the total negative effect of bus service quality on car use is far less than the positive effect of car ownership. Thus, when car ownership is growing rapidly, only a comprehensive and substantial improvement in bus service can alleviate and ultimately eliminate the enormous pressure on urban traffic resulted from the increasing car ownership. This study provides empirical evidence to explain why traffic congestion is still serious with the strong support in public transport from governments and gives policy implications on how to control urban traffic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Besides its undeniable advantages, personal car use generates a wide array of problems, among which its contribution to global warming is probably the most severe. To implement sound policies that are effective in reducing private car use, it is essential to first understand its important antecedents. Structural, psychological and contextual predictors were extensively studied independently, yet integrative approaches that investigate all these factors in a single theoretical model are lacking. The present study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of car use behavior by proposing a model that includes structural, psychological and contextual determinants and tests this model on an international sample of drivers (N = 414). Responses were analyzed using a structural equation modeling approach. Results show that car use habits, perceived behavioral control, policy measures, fuel cost, infrastructure, temperature and level of precipitations significantly influence car use behavior. Such results support the inclusion of both structural (i.e., hard) and psychological (i.e., soft) factors in the design of policy interventions, while also considering contextual situations. Implications for policy and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Besides its undeniable advantages, personal car use generates a wide array of problems, among which its contribution to global warming is probably the most severe. To implement sound policies that are effective in reducing private car use, it is essential to first understand its important antecedents. Structural, psychological and contextual predictors were extensively studied independently, yet integrative approaches that investigate all these factors in a single theoretical model are lacking. The present study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of car use behavior by proposing a model that includes structural, psychological and contextual determinants and tests this model on an international sample of drivers (N = 414). Responses were analyzed using a structural equation modeling approach. Results show that car use habits, perceived behavioral control, policy measures, fuel cost, infrastructure, temperature and level of precipitations significantly influence car use behavior. Such results support the inclusion of both structural (i.e., hard) and psychological (i.e., soft) factors in the design of policy interventions, while also considering contextual situations. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Most case and comparative studies discuss urban characteristics that can hardly be influenced by urban transport policies. However, these studies do not quantify the impact of the so-called contextual factors on car ownership and car use. This paper focuses on these contextual factors and their associations with car ownership and car use. Regression models show that contextual factors - such as city size, the share of households with children and the jobs-housing balance - explain a substantial part of the variance in car ownership and car trips in 44 German cities. Residual analyses reveal that neglecting contextual factors leads to biases in comparative studies and consequently in the evaluation of urban transport policies. Thus, there is a risk that cities with favourable contextual factors may be mistakenly viewed as successful examples of transport policy, whereas successful policies in cities with less favourable contextual factors may be overlooked. • Contextual factors explain a large part of variance in car ownership and car trips. • Residual analyses show: Neglecting contextual factors leads to bias in benchmarking. • Transport policies should be evaluated while accounting for contextual factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Car use is a common travel mode in many societies but it has negative impacts on the environment and public health. There have been various interventions to reduce car use but self-persuasion has not been tested as a potential intervention. Self-persuasion involves asking people to generate arguments in favour of a specific issue. Our goal was to investigate the effectiveness of self-persuasion in changing drivers’ car use attitudes and behaviours. A sample of New Zealand drivers (n = 183) completed two online questionnaires; one immediately after and one at least 2 weeks after the intervention. We randomly assigned the drivers to one of three conditions: self-persuasion (generating arguments on the benefits of reducing car use), direct-persuasion (reading arguments on the benefits of reducing car use), and control (completing a different travel-related task). There were no significant differences between the three groups of drivers on car use intentions for commuting trips, weekly car use for commuting and non-commuting trips, or attitudes towards reducing car use. We attributed the ineffectiveness of self-persuasion to the average quality of arguments generated, the effortful nature of reducing car use, and the COVID-19 situation in New Zealand. Although self-persuasion may not be an appropriate intervention in the travel behaviour domain, future research needs to continue identifying new ways to reduce car use to reduce its detrimental effects.

Australia's first Mobility as a Service (MaaS) trial commenced in April 2019 in Sydney, running for two years. The objective of the trial is at least twofold – to assess interest in various MaaS subscription plans through bundling public transport, rideshare, car share and car rental with varying financial discounts and monthly subscription fees, in contrast to pay as you go (PAYG); and to assess the extent to which the use of the private car might change following a subscription to a monthly mobility bundle. This paper assesses the second objective by investigating the potential for changes in monthly car use in the presence of a MaaS program. There is no previous research that we are aware of that has tested the relationship between MaaS bundle uptake and private car use. The paper develops a joint discrete-continuous model system to explain the choice between monthly bundles and PAYG, and subsequently, the total monthly car kilometres. Controlling for monthly differences due to other influences such as seasonal travel activity, the findings suggest that the offered bundles do have an encouraging impact on private car use. Within the limits of what was tested under the Sydney MaaS trial, indicative evidence suggests that MaaS has the potential to change travel behaviour in a way aligned with sustainability objectives, although this evidence should not be taken as suggesting that MaaS is a commercially viable mobility strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental and social sustainability of commuting to work is an increasingly relevant line of research. The starting point of this paper is that a significant internal territorial heterogeneity persists on aggregate indexes of car use and that it is important to measure and understand this process correctly. This contribution propose the method of decomposition of aggregate rates (Das Gupta) as a valid methodology to understand correctly regional heterogeneity. Part of these geographical differences (between regions, degree of urbanization) is explained by a real behaviour gap. However, the sociodemographic and territorial compositions of the working populations are important as well. That is because the propensity to use the private vehicle varies along certain characteristics of the workers, and regional population structures linked to those characteristics are heterogeneous. From a policy point of view, to control (and eventually reduce) the use of cars in labour daily mobility must take into account both behaviour and composition factors. Corrective measures that only point to the behaviour of people might fail if they do not take into account the momentum of sociodemographic structures.

• Semi-structured in-depth interviews explored attitudinal complexity of above-average mileage car users and non-car users. • Thematic analysis revealed attitudinal ambivalence and context-dependent variability of transport-relevant evaluations. • Identified specific situations in which ambivalence is salient. • Highlighted the complexity of aspects of transport convenience and inconvenience. • Findings suggest that specific survey questions may be prone to ambiguity. Attitudes towards travel mode choice have been regarded as bi-polar evaluations of travel options that remain stable across time and context. Intra-personal attitudes can be variable, becoming more or less salient and changing in strength or valence across decisional contexts. This study draws on theoretical underpinnings of attitudinal ambivalence, which proposes that a person can hold two-dimensional (negative and positive) evaluations about one attitude object simultaneously. The present research aimed to explore attitudinal ambivalence in relation to travel modes and examine the variability of attitudes in different contexts. Thirty semi-structured interviews explored above-average mileage car users' (n = 15) and non-car users' (n = 15) experiences of attitudinal ambivalence in relation to various transport modes and under which circumstances. Thematic analysis found support for attitudinal ambivalence and context-dependent attitude variability in relation to travel mode evaluations. Discussions of an a priori questionnaire confirmed the malleability of transport-relevant attitudes. Transport-relevant attitudes are complex and ambivalent. Attitudinal ambivalence and context-dependent attitude variability has implications for transport research design, interventions targeting travel-related attitudes and policies aimed to reduce single-occupancy driving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Bidirectionality exists in attitude behavior relations in transportation. • We find evidence of a feedback loop among car pride, car ownership, and car use. • Individuals with higher car pride are more likely to own a vehicle. • Enabled with this ownership, individuals use the car more frequently for commuting. • Individuals who use their car more frequently have greater pride in their vehicle. Individuals attribute social status and personal image to owning and using a car ('car pride'), which may interact with their travel behavior in complex ways. This study explores the multi-directional relations among car pride, car ownership, and car use for a sample of 1236 adult commuters in New York City, NY and Houston, TX. Applying multivariate structural equation modeling and incorporating instrumental variables, we find evidence of a feedback loop among car pride, car ownership, and car use. Our results suggest that an individual with higher car pride is more likely to own a vehicle, and, enabled with this ownership, use it more frequently. And individuals who use their car more frequently are likely to feel more pride in owning and using their vehicle. This exploration of causal multi-directionality in transportation attitude-behavior relations has important implications for behavioral research, model development, and policy interventions. For researchers, potential bidirectionality must be anticipated from the outset of research design and accounted for appropriately in modeling to address underlying endogeneity. For policymakers, our results suggest that there are multiple intervention points within the reinforcing cycle of attitudes and car consumption. Policies could directly target car ownership and use or could consider influencing behavior through attitude change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residents' activity-related travel patterns are not only based on short-term decisions but also impacted by long-term factors, such as attitudes and past behaviours that have developed in people's daily lives. This study examines the impacts of service facility accessibility, past behaviours and travel attitudes on activity-related travel patterns among relocated residents from the urban centre of Kunming, China to a suburb. This study applied path analysis modelling to explore the influencing mechanisms of activity-related travel behaviours after relocation. The results showed that residential relocation led to a reduction in commuting time, whereas it was not found to have significant effects on car use for commuting. As for non-working activities and related car use, for activities, travel attitudes and past behaviours had a more positive effect on the frequency of shopping and social network activities than on the effects of service facility accessibility. Car use for these activities tends to be for trips of social network activity. Shopping activities may be replaced by online shopping, and derived trips also reduced. The study contributes to the literature on residential relocation and travel behaviours and to the connection between past behaviours and attitudes and travel behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beyond their functional purpose, cars are often considered a status symbol. There may exist a certain level of pride associated with owning and using cars, particularly in regions where motorization is rapidly growing. However, there is little empirical evidence in terms of how car pride is related to different behavioral aspects, such as car ownership and use, especially in the context of developing countries. This paper presents an exploration of car pride and its association with car-related behavior. In this work, car pride is defined as the self-conscious emotion derived from the appraisal of owning and using cars as a positive self-representation. It pertains to both the symbolic and affective functions of the car. Using survey data (n = 1389) from Shanghai, China, we empirically measure car pride as a latent variable based on five Likert-scale statements and test the association of car pride with car use, vehicle preferences, and car ownership. Based on two structural equation models, we show that: (1) car pride is positively correlated with car use; (2) car pride correlates significantly with owning newer, more expensive, and luxury cars, and Shanghai's more expensive local car licenses; (3) car owners in general have higher car pride than non-owners; and (4) car pride is largely independent of one's socio-economic characteristics. Although the analysis focuses on Shanghai, the findings of the positive correlation between car pride and behavior are consistent with prior studies in developed countries. These findings highlight the importance of car pride regarding multiple behavioral aspects of car ownership and use and its potential impact on mobility management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper links the mobility biography approach with studies on intra-household interactions between partners in travel. It does so by developing a multi-group path model – a structural equation model without latent variables – of changes in car use over time as a function of changes in activity and trip patterns, path dependency (baseline car use), life course changes, and the respective respondent's partner's car use, activity and trip patterns. In terms of life course changes, the paper accounts for (gradual, rather than abrupt) changes in paid and unpaid worktime, and the birth of a first or higher-order (i.e. second or further) child. The model further categorises respondents by gender. It focuses on couples who share one car. A model for multi-car households is estimated for comparison. The results show multiple interactions between two partners at the baseline as well as over time. The effects of the birth of a child are less clear than expected. Generally, they suggest that increases in driving are primarily an outcome of higher-order births, especially in one-car households. Policy conclusions are (1) that it may be overly optimistic to assume that the birth of a child can be utilised as a 'window of opportunity' to reduce driving, and (2) that social interactions between partners should be taken into account in policy concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study used sources from selected databases to provide an overview of the role of habit in choosing a mode of travel. The articles were selected from two levels. The first included selected studies that considered the psychological aspects of travel mode choice and travel mode change. These created the context for the issues of mode choice and the change of travel mode. The second level was narrower and included studies that were directly focused on the role of habit in travel mode choice or that took the role of habit into account. These studies were used as the core of the review. Subsequently, the topic of habit and travel mode choice was divided into four fields: the theoretical definition of the concept of habit, both in general and in the context of travel mode choice; the theoretical bases of the selected studies; follow-up strategies for transport-mode change; and the measurements and methods used in the field. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is the most often used theory for explaining the travel mode choice. Other approaches include the Norm Activation Model and the Value Belief Norm Theory. The aim for other approaches is usually to trigger conscious choice processes, but most reaearchers believe that travel mode choices are automatic and habitual when made in a stable context. The Comprehensive Action Determination Model is a promising theoretical integration that may be used in future research. It integrates assumptions of the TPB, Norm Activation Model, theoretical habit conception, and ipsative behaviour theory in order to build on habitual processes, intention processes, situation effects, and personal and social norms. As habit seems to have the most important role in the choice of travel modes and the possible changes, it should also be considered for mode-choice models in the automation era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Eleven leisure mobility segments with distinct features were identified. • The cluster analysis is based on multi-day data of leisure travel behaviour. • Car-oriented and non-car-oriented clusters make leisure trips to the same extent. • There are great differences in car use even among the car-oriented clusters. • A variety of measures and economic incentives are needed to reduce car use. Despite awareness of the negative consequences of car use, leisure trips are still often made by car. A better understanding of the potential for a transition to more sustainable transport behaviour requires more knowledge about the differences in car use between individuals and leisure trip purposes. As a basis for this, individuals were clustered into six car-oriented and five non-car-oriented leisure mobility segments based on data from a one-month app-based travel survey. The clusters differ substantially with respect to the cluster-forming variables including car trip characteristics, mode choice, and leisure trip purposes. The clusters also differ regarding spatial, sociodemographic, and socioeconomic characteristics, especially between car-oriented and non-car-oriented clusters. However, for self-reported data about priorities in life and basic human values there are no major differences between the clusters. One interesting finding is that car-oriented and non-car-oriented clusters make leisure trips to the same extent, indicating that both groups have a similar wish or need to travel for leisure purposes but that they choose different transport modes to get to their destinations. Also, there is great variety in car use even among the car-oriented clusters. Taking these differences into consideration, a variety of measures and economic incentives targeted towards specific mobility segments are needed to reduce car use for leisure trips. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]