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This study by researchers at the University of California, Irvine, the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Policy Studies Associates, Inc. finds that regular participation in high-quality afterschool programs is linked to significant gains in standardized test scores and work habits as well as reductions in behavior problems among disadvantaged students. These gains help offset the negative impact of a lack of supervision after school. The two-year study followed almost 3,000 low-income, ethnically diverse elementary and middle school students from eight states in six major metropolitan centers and six smaller urban and rural locations. About half of the young people attended high-quality afterschool programs at their schools or in their communities. (Contains 2 exhibits.)

This report provides a review of reviews concerning the effects of stimulant medication on children with attention deficit disorders (ADD) conducted by a special federally funded center at the University of California (Irvine). Both computer searching and nomination by ADD experts were used to identify the 336 reviews examined. All reviews were systematically examined for information in 10 critical areas: (1) response rate, (2) effects on diagnostic symptoms, (3) effects of associated features, (4) side effects, (5) long term effects, (6) paradoxical response, (7) effects on high order processes, (8) prediction of response, (9) recommendations about clinical use, and (10) recommendations for multimodality treatment. Substantial consensus was found about the effects of stimulant medication--in most cases a clear and immediate short term benefit is perceived in symptoms and associated features of ADD. Persistent controversies about stimulant medication concern the lack of diagnostic specificity for short term effects, the lack of effects on learning or complex cognitive skills, potential side effects and adverse effects, and the lack of evidence of significant long term effects. A complete list of the reviews is provided. (DB)

This study examined learning by individuals and groups in a computer environment. Individual interactivity as a function of group size was investigated by focusing on various modes of interaction available to students while they completed activities using a computer. The activities, which involved manipulation of pictures of batteries, bulbs, and wires on the computer screen to perform simple experiments with simple direct current (DC) circuits, involved high-level learning (reasoning skills and conceptual understanding). Achievement was measured by administering brief paper and pencil tests and individual interviews. Data were also collected for subjects (N=58 seventh and eighth grade students) on age, sex, grade point average, and family income. The study also investigated students' grasp of concepts being taught by having them apply their knowledge to appropriate non-computer tasks, and certain global aspects of the group session to provide generalizations of typical social and psychological behavior in the computer-based learning environment. Among the findings reported are those indicating an advantage of small group usage (two to three students per group) over individual usage of highly interactive computer-based instructional materials and that students working in such groups seemed more likely to interpret program questions as the authors of the materials had intended. (JN)

This paper discusses correlates (not causes) of success in a college chemistry class. It focuses on the immediate and practical concern of identifying those antecedent variables which, because of their close association with success in chemistry, could be used to predict success. Multiple regression analysis determined that the most satisfactory predictors of chemistry grades were measures of mathematical ability, previous study of chemistry, and overall academic achievement. A regression equation was developed which could be used to identify individual students who might, because of inadequate preparation, benefit from tutoring or an alternative course sequence. Suggestions for program development included a cooperative effort toward reducing the likelihood of failure experiences for students through programs which foster cognitive and affective competencies. For those students who do not succeed, colleges should be prepared to offer academic, career, and personal counseling to assist them in evaluating their situation and in choosing wisely among available alternatives. (Author/PC)

This paper presents and discusses a portion of empirical data collected from a large sample of British factory workers and relates these workers' perception of the discretion available to them to their work satisfaction. Perceived discretion is measured for two sectors of work experience: first, discretion surrounding actual job performance; and second, direction involving participation in the world of work. The major conclusion suggested by the evidence presented is that job performance discretion is less significantly related to work satisfaction than workers' perceived discretion as to where and at what job they work. (Also included are a 29-item bibliography and some of the research data.) (Author)

While many studies have demonstrated the relatively successful performance implications of formalized goal-setting programs in organizations, these findings typically do not identify the specific factors behind such techniques which are largely responsible for their success. Toward this end, research relating to six factor-analytically derived attributes of employees' task goals is reviewed to ascertain which attributes are more consistently related to performance. The six "task goal attributes" are: (1) goal specificity, (2) participation in goal-setting, (3) feedback, (4) peer competition, (5) goal difficulty, and (6) goal acceptance. While goal specificity and goal acceptance were found to be most consistently related to performance, several intervening variables emerged which tended to affect significantly the impact of certain attributes on performance. The findings are discussed within a motivational framework and it is argued, based on the data, that performance under goal-setting conditions is a function of at least three important variables: the nature of the task goals, additional situational-environmental factors, and individual differences. (A 13-page bibliography is included.) (Author/BP)

Unanticipated obstacles and difficulties, endemic to industrial research in complex sociocultural settings, indicate that reliable conclusions concerning industrial life are problematic. Discussion of sampling biases reveals that error of unknown proportions is introduced into the research process: first, when decisions about whom to study are made; second, when "entree" is attempted; and third, when individual response cooperation is solicited. The authors conclude that only when data are cumulated across a sizable number of independent studies can reliable conclusions about industrial behavior be made. Also included are a six-item bibliography and a distribution list. (Author/BP)

Concepts in recursive functional programing form the basis of a course designed to introduce Humanities and Social Science students to computer programing. Unlike many introductory courses, recursion was taught prior to any mention of iteration or assigned operations. LOGO, a non-numeric language originally invented for use by children, was chosen as the medium. A brief summary is made of LOGO, and the assigned problems are described, along with the motivation behind each. This technical report considers how theoretical ideas about computing can be explained intuitively and how, by choosing some metaphors that are particularly meaningful to the non-science student, these abstract ideas can be presented effectively. Some of the limitations and hindrances of the course are described, and suggestions for circumventing them in the future are offered. (KKC)

Questionnaire data were obtained from 149 enlisted men in the United States Navy. The job scope/satisfaction with the work itself relationship was examined for the study's total sample and for subsamples created by grouping individuals on the basis of their belief in the Protestant ethic (middle-class work norms and values). Job scope may be interpreted as the degree to which a job is enriched--providing high variety, autonomy, task identity, and feedback. Satisfaction with "the work itself" reflects the degree to which the level of intrinsic rewards derived from a job may meet or exceed the worker's perceived equitable level of rewards. It was hypothesized and found that the job scope-work satisfaction relationship was positive and significantly different from zero for the study's total sample and each of the three Protestant ethic subsamples. Contrary to one of the study's hypotheses, Protestant ethic did not moderate the job scope-work satisfaction relationship. The study's results were discussed in terms of their implications for theory and practice relating to job design. (Author/EA)

"Compensatory" and "spillover" models have described the two basic relationships individuals form between work and nonwork experiences. The assembly line worker seeking compensation in nonwork activities for deadening work exemplifies the first. A person whose nonwork activities are an extension of work experiences exemplifies the second. The study was designed to deal with criticisms of past research; an individual's own perceptions of his two social environments were used to determine how he personally saw them as related. His self-concept was considered to determine whether any individual differences moderate the form of adjustment an individual achieves between the two spheres. A sample of 178 individuals, using a set of 25 semantic differential scales for comparison, could be classified into four types: spillover/work-oriented; spillover/nonwork-oriented; compensatory/work-oriented; and compensatory/nonwork-oriented. Analysis revealed that both types of spillover individuals viewed both spheres of experiences equally. Compensatory individuals showed sharp contrasts--the work-oriented viewed work experiences as more positive, and the nonwork-oriented viewed them as less positive, than nonwork experiences. Compensatory individuals of both types viewed themselves as less deliberate, active, orderly, and challenging than did spillover individuals. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed. (Author/AJ)

The paper examines literature concerned with the relationship individuals form between experiences in their work and nonwork spheres, an issue which is most pronounced in societies where a marked separation exists between the institution of work and social institutions. The author identifies established theoretical models and evaluates empirical evidence for the relationship. The work-nonwork relationship is described by two basic models: spillover (a continuation of work experiences away from work), and compensatory (a reaction to work experiences that guides the selection of nonwork experiences). It has been pointed out by several sociologists that if work lacks meaning, the worker seeks meaning in leisure activities. Another implication is that bad work experiences (alienation) spill over to nonwork activities. Empirical research is classified into two groups: the relationship between work and activities in the nonwork sphere, and studies attempting to relate specific characteristics of people's jobs to their nonwork activities. The studies reviewed are discussed with respect to the spillover and compensatory relationship models. Conclusions and recommendations revolve around building upon past research and theories in constructing more in-depth studies of these relationships. (JB)

A review of the research literature on goal-setting in organizational settings reveals that goal-setting on an individual job results in better task performance. However, the processes behind their effectiveness is unclear. For example, how are various job attributes of task goals related to performance, and how do various individual differences factors affect the goal-setting process? The study examines the impact of variations in individual differences on the task goal attribute and performance relationship. The investigation studies five task goal attributes: participation in goal-setting; feedback on goal effort; peer competition for goal attainment; goal difficulty; and goal specificity. One hundred thirty-three first-level supervisors in the accounting and customer service departments working under a goal-setting program were investigated through the use of a task goal attribute questionnaire, an adjective check list, a demographic information sheet, and performance measures. The results indicated that the need for achievement can represent a significant influence on the relationship between an employee's task goal attributes and performance. Participation in goal-setting was essential for low need achievers, while feedback and goal specificity were more important for high need achievers. A bibliography is provided. (JB)

The paper is concerned with determining from a large sample of British industrial workers, whether there is an unconditional relationship between job specialization and worker dissatisfaction, or a relationship contingent on middle-class work values. The recent work literature includes three contradictory propositions relating job specialization and worker dissatisfaction. The first predicts an unconditional relationship between these variables; the second predicts that it will be higher among workers committed to middle-class work values; the third predicts that it will be higher among "alienated" workers. Data were gathered in a survey of 5,274 industrial workers employed in six factories in England, Scotland, and Wales. The research instrument, a 153-item questionnaire, was completed by 61 percent or 3,193 workers. For the most part, workers of both sexes and of varying age and tenure, were low skilled and worked on production lines. From the data, presented in tabular form, it is concluded that correlates of job specialization related in different ways and in varying degrees to worker dissatisfaction. The complexity of the problem is that workers' affective responses to characteristics of specialized work are not uniform, but vary with different job characteristics. A bibliography is provided. (Author/JB)

With support from the National Science Foundation and the University of California, the Physics Computer Development Project have produced in the last six years computer based material in a wide variety of modes. Among the major products are science learning dialogs, graphic additions to APL (A Programming Language), the underlying software, and the authoring system. The project has five major objectives: to produce examples of effective use of graphics in computer-based teaching materials; to explore the use of graphics in computer based teaching materials; to explore authoring modes; to introduce dialogs and other standard computer approaches into standard undergraduate environments; to seek a compatible software strategy. Future projects include an organized Research Unit in Educational Technology and a single timesharing computer for science teaching on all eight undergraduate campuses of the University of California. (SK)

A pair of interactive computer-student dialogs developed for use primarily with elementary and high school teachers are described. The dialogs use graphic facilities for teaching about the sky as seen from the earth and about the phases of the moon. The primary aim is for the teachers to understand the nature of a scientific model, in this case the model of the phases of the moon, through a Socratic interaction with the computer. The dialogs are also being used by other university students. (Author/SK)

Some aspects of a theory of grammar are presented which derive from a formal theory of language acquisition. One aspect of the theory is a universal constraint on analyzability known as the Freezing Principle, which supplants a variety of constraints proposed in the literature. A second aspect of the theory is the Invariance Principle, a constraint on the relationship between semantic and syntactic structure that makes verifiable predictions of syntactic universals. The relationship between the notion of "explanatory adequacy" of a theory of grammar and the learnability of a class of transformational grammars is discussed. (Author)

What factors affect the attachment of employees to their work and work organization? What are the consequences of attachment or lack of it? The report summarizes the broad findings of a long-term research project designed to examine attitudinal and behavioral aspects of individual-organization linkages, conceived in two broad categories--the acts of joining and remaining employed by the organization, and the person's degree of attachment while employed. Employee turnover received particular research attention in the first category; indexes of employee motivation, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction received particular attention in the second category. Dependent variables considered were job attitudes, turnover and absenteeism, and job performance. The major findings of the specific studies which comprised the project are presented in the context of these categories, in terms of the variables' relationships. The implications for organizations are: focus on pre-entry expectations of new members, monitor their early organizational experiences, determine where commitment to the organization is most crucial and concentrate attention there, develop suborganization attachment, create jobs with greater scope, discover job dimensionality, and individualize incentives. The titles of the project's technical reports and publications are appended. (Author/AJ)

The Project on Instructional Criteria has attempted to develop a methodology for evaluation of computer service for instructional purposes. Through site visits, letters, surveys of institutions and of recent literature, and interviews, existing practices were investigated. Alternative techniques were designed and tested for measuring quality, quantity, and user needs. The outcomes are summarized and explained in a guidebook to the evaluation of computing, "Evaluating Instructional Computing: Measuring Needs and Resources for Computing in Higher Education." It provides a review of the instructional uses of computing, recommends techniques for the measurement of the quality and quantity of computing, and suggests techniques that evaluate alternatives on an individual campus. (EMH)

This paper describes the present practical use of computers in two large beginning physics courses at the University of California, Irvine; discusses the versatility and desirability of computers in the field of education; and projects the possible future directions of computer-based learning. The advantages and disadvantages of educational networking (including regional computer centers for education) and the stand-alone, one-on-one computer are discussed. One stand-alone system now being developed for a home-based videodisc system which attaches to a television set is described. It is suggested that computers will occupy a more important role in the educational process in the future than they do at present. (KKC)

The phrase "student computer dialogs" refers to interactive sessions between the student and the computer. Rather than using programing languages specifically designed for computer assisted instruction (CAI), existing general purpose languages should be emphasized in the future development of student computer dialogs, as the power and flexibility of general purpose languages make their extension more useful to a larger proportion of computer installations. Two programing languages have been used at the University of California at Irvine--METASYMBOL, the assembly language used on the Xerox Sigma 7, and FORTRAN. A number of small modules have been written in these two languages, and more are being developed. Technological advances in hardware may soon lead to stand-along systems for student computer dialogs, thus making small-scale programs more important. An example of one module developed at Irvine is provided. (DGC)

A study assessed the costs and benefits of learning and of developing part-time employment of in-school youth. During the study, data were collected from a sample of 531 tenth- and eleventh-grade students drawn from an initial pool of 3,100 youngsters attending high schools in Orange County, California. To gather these data, researchers used survey questionnaires, on-site interviews of the adolescents, and interviews with their parents. The research design included both cross-sectional and longitudinal components. Researchers concluded that adolescents who take part-time jobs while in school experience a number of benefits, including development of personal responsibility and acquisition of knowledge about business and consumer matters. However, some of the benefits of working while in school have been overstated. Youngsters who work show no significant changes in their long-term educational or occupational plans. In addition, working entails costs. It can diminish involvement in school activities, is associated with increased absenteeism, and, in some cases, leads to a decline in school performance. Recommendations called for limiting student work to 15 to 20 hours per week, for encouraging youth to take jobs that provide opportunities for learning and contact with adults, and for closer collaboration among educators and employers. (MN)

This report on the Adult Math Skills Project includes sections on theory, empirical studies, and their implications. Section 1 presents an overview, noting that activity and setting are seen as mutually creating, sustaining, and changing the nature of problem solving. The empirical studies involved: (1) arithmetic practices among grocery shoppers; (2) the acquisition of arithmetic skills by new members of a dieting group; (3) the management of money-flow through households; and (4) an exploration of the backgrounds and customary procedures of participants in the first two studies. Section 2 introduces the theoretical perspective of the project, using the money management study and other data for illustrations. In section 3, the various arithmetic tasks designed and carried out with 35 participating adults are described, followed by an analysis of the character of links between school-learned and everyday arithmetic. Section 4 analyzes the grocery shopping activity. Finally, section 5 discusses the implications of the studies for educational policy in the United States. An appendix contains the tests and tasks administered. (MNS)

This is the final report for a study whose original purpose was to develop a general theory of the situational constraints imposed by the routines of everyday life on arithmetic skills. Section 1 reviews the goals laid out in the proposal in relation to what was accomplished. Section 2 is the draft of "Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Context." It presents a theory of problem solving as interaction between setting and activity. Section 3 is the draft of another manuscript, "The Dialectical Constitution of Arithmetic Practice." (MNS)

This paper analyzes the quantitative and situational structure of algebra story problems, uses these materials to propose an interpretive framework for written problem soving protocols, and then presents an exploratory study of the episodic structure of algebra story problem solving in a sizable group of mathematically competent subjects. Analyses of written protocols compare the strategic, tactical, and conceptual content of solution attempts, looking within these attempts at the interplay between problem comprehension and solution. Comprehension and solution of algebra story problems are complimentary activities, giving rise to a succession of problem solving episodes. While direct algebraic problem solving is sometimes effective, results suggest that the algebraic formalism may be of little help in comprehending the quantitative constraints posed in a problem text. Instead, competent problem solvers often reason within the situational context presented by a story problem, using various forms of "model-based reasoning" to identify, pursue, and verify quantitative constraints required for solution. The paper concludes by discussing the implications of these findings for acquiring mathematical concepts (e.g., related linear functions) and for supporting their acquisition through instruction. (Author)