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Indonesia is the world's third largest cocoa producer, but production is decreasing since 2011. We revisited cocoa farmers for an environmental assessment in Luwu Timur, Sulawesi, 7 months after a socio-economic survey on cocoa certification outcomes and observed many cocoa plantations being converted into oil palm and maize. Including our field data as well as secondary data on commodity prices and yields, we outline reasons for cocoa conversion, potential consequences for biodiversity, and assess the future outlook for the Indonesian cocoa sector. Low cocoa productivity, volatile cocoa prices and higher revenue for oil palm, among others, drive land-use change. If shade trees are cut during cocoa conversion, it may have negative implications for biodiversity. Solutions to low soil fertility, omnipresent pests and diseases, and stable producer prices are needed to increase profitability of cocoa and prevent conversion of cocoa agroforests to oil palm monocultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective savings mechanisms are crucial for household resilience and economic growth. Savings accounts, whether from banks or mobile-phone based, offer an alternative to informal saving mechanisms as they provide safe and private cash storage. However, there is still no clear evidence on how the use of digital tools can contribute to increasing farmers' savings, compared with other financial tools such as bank accounts or keeping cash at home. To address this gap, we investigate factors affecting cocoa farmers' decisions to save, as well as their savings amounts. Shedding light on saving determinants, we answer the question of whether formal and semi-formal accounts play a major role in savings accumulation. For our study, we employ data from a structured telephone survey conducted in 2021 among 405 randomly sampled cocoa farmers. Results from an interval regression suggest that bank account usage is associated with higher savings amounts. In contrast to male cocoa farmers, females seem to use mobile savings tools to their benefit. Our analysis further reveals the importance of education in household financial resource management. We provide valuable results for public policymakers and the private sector towards responsible financial inclusion and pro-poor development of digital financial services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the level of awareness and management of cocoa black pod disease and factors influencing the sourcing of planting materials by smallholder farmers in Cross River State, Nigeria. A questionnaire, designed to assess farmers' knowledge and control measures, was administered to 200 cocoa farmers. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a linear regression model to determine factors influencing planting material sourcing. The study revealed that the majority of farmers were small- or medium-scale, with a small household size, limiting the adoption of improved technology. A majority of smallholder farmers planted Amazon cocoa varieties while 21.4% of respondents did not know the variety of cocoa they planted. The majority of farmers used fungicides to control black pod disease, and respondents obtained cocoa planting materials from other farmers (71%) or from Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria Stations and Agricultural Development Stations (29%). The study found that only three variables significantly predicted the source of cocoa planting materials: variety of cocoa planted, quantity of fungicide used per annum, and fungicide/harvest ratio. There is a need to extend agricultural development stations as well as increase extension services to help farmers getting improved cocoa varieties from authorized centers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theobroma cacao beans are cultivated in Fiji by smallholder farms in low volumes, mainly for export. Cocoa beans are often processed under ambient conditions by farmers and cocoa processors. Postharvest processing includes natural fermentation from six to ten days in wooden boxes, followed by sun – drying in the open for up to 14 days. The impact of fermentation conditions on key quality parameters of Fijian cocoa beans, such as temperature profile, pH, and total extractable polyphenol content (TPC) are presented in this study. The quality of fermentation was assessed using a standard method, such as a cut test followed by fermentation index (FI) measurement. A temperature increase to 40°C and variations in the pH of the bean mass were evident during natural fermentation. TPC in the cocoa beans was sensitive to temperature and pH. Fermentation was variable due to weather conditions between harvest seasons. The dry season had the best conditions for fermentation as the peak temperature of the bean mass was 40°C and the FI was high (1.39 ± 0.04) There is a need to improve fermentation during the rainy season. This can be achieved by providing training to Fijian cocoa farmers on using better fermentation techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small-scale farmers often suffer from poverty due to their dependence on unjust practices in global supply chains. On-farm training could help them address this, but it often lacks scalability and reach. Technology-enhanced learning (TEL) can tackle this issue but risks creating secondary injustices, such as epistemic injustice, by neglecting marginalized users’ unique needs, knowledge, and local context. This case study analyzes the process of co-designing a digital peer training model for marginalized users, in this case, cacao farmers in Nicaragua. The authors draw on comprehensive data from participatory action research, as well as facilitator conversations, surveys, informal discussions, and field observations. Based on the findings, the authors suggest a framework to mitigate the risks of introducing secondary injustices in TEL design through a critical digital pedagogy (CDP) lens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines the effect of shade management practices on cocoa seedling mortality. It investigates farmer awareness and adoption of the recommended shade practices and its influence on reducing cocoa seedling mortality. The constraints facing cocoa farmers in adopting the recommended shade management practices were also examined. Using data collected from 180 smallholder cocoa farmers, the ordered logit and poisson regression models were employed. The results indicate that majority of the farmers were highly aware of the recommended shade management practices, however, relatively moderate number of the farmers have adopted the recommended shade management practices. Our results further revealed that educational level, extension service, source of a shade tree, the type of shade practice, spraying insecticide, and weeding had a significant effect on reducing seedling mortality. Furthermore, the prevalence of diseases and pest infestation was identified as the major constraint faced by farmers in shade management. We, therefore, recommend that Cocobod should intensify extension services to increase the adoption of shade management practices through trainings to offset the high mortality in unshaded cocoa farms and sustain the survival of the cocoa seedlings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is the greatest challenge to developing countries, especially where rain-fed agriculture is the main source of livelihood and revenue. Agroforestry provides an opportunity for farmers to adapt and reduce the carbon footprint. We conducted an exploratory review on the role of cocoa agroforestry for climate change mitigation and adaptation of smallholders by applying combinations of keywords that include climate change, agroforestry, stakeholders, Paris agreement, INDCs/NDCs, mitigation and adaptation. The paper combined data sources covering reports on past and on-going cocoa sustainability projects and policy interventions in Ghana as well as the output of exploratory review that utilized relevant key words to identify appropriate literature for investigation and analysis. We established that, there is low adoption of pro-environmental interventions introduced by both Government and NGOs in the cocoa sector. In addition, there is a shift in cocoa farming from expansion into forest areas to adoption of intensive cocoa monoculture. Despite the importance of shaded trees in cocoa production such as the benefits gained from agroforestry system, cocoa farmers have low appreciation of their environmental, soil, nutrients and other ecological benefits. We recommend that cocoa farmers should be involved in the formulation and implementation of pro-environmental interventions that affect their cocoa production practices. This will make farmers take ownership of the innovation instead of it being introduced to them. In addition, since our review of the literature established that the surge in yield is the impetus for cocoa monoculture adoption, there is the need to introduce cocoa varieties with higher yields under agroforestry system. Finally, there should be monetary valuation of shade trees used in cocoa agroforestry systems for payment to farmers to help improve agroforestry adoption. We argue that cocoa agroforestry though considered an old practice, remains one of the most appropriate land-use systems that is climate-smart with great potential to contribute to sustainable cocoa production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the perception of drought by cocoa farmers and explored the effectiveness of adaptive strategies (ASs) used in smallholding farms in the transboundary region between Ghana and Togo. Drought significantly threatens cocoa production in this region, affecting farmers' livelihoods and cocoa supply chains. This study used a multistage sampling approach, which involved surveys with questionnaires administered to 330 cocoa farmers throughout the study area, along with on-site observations. Statistical analysis included binary logistic and Poisson regression models to explore the relationship between farmer socioeconomic characteristics and adaptation practices. The findings revealed that cocoa farmers in the region have a nuanced understanding of drought, attributed to changing climatic patterns and unsustainable land management practices such as deforestation. To mitigate its impacts, farmers employ a variety of ASs, including investment in farm management, soil management, and intercropping with crop diversification. Furthermore, socioeconomic factors, including age, formal education, household size, land tenure right, adaptation cost assessment, and an underestimation of self-efficacy, were shown to affect the choice in the AS. Among the ASs adopted, only farm management practices (weeding, pruning, fertilizer application, etc.) significantly improved the cocoa yield. This study contributes to understanding drought as a critical issue for cocoa farmers and the adaptation practices used by smallholder cocoa farmers. Given that among the strategies adopted, only farm management practices, also known as good agricultural practices (GAPs), significantly improves yield, this study recommends well-designed and innovative packages of sustainable farm management based on farm and owner characteristics. These include irrigation schemes, timely soil fertilizer monitoring and supply, and the provision of drought-resistant varieties along with technical itineraries. Additional interventions require drought emergency responses, with other factors such as education and financial support mechanisms expected to improve farmers' timely decision-making to adapt and improve cocoa production resilience to drought episodes in international transboundary regions with complex governance structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey was conducted to investigate farmers' knowledge, attitudes towards pesticide use, storage/disposal, exposure risks and health symptoms in one of the eight cocoa growing regions in Ghana. A considerable proportion of the farmers (32%) used the bush as a storage facility for pesticides, 17% of the farmers stored chemicals in their living rooms, 3% of the farmers stored chemicals in their kitchen, 15% in their food storeroom, and 4% in the animal house. Personal protective equipment (PPE) use was positively associated with advice obtained from agrochemical shops (OR = 1.735, p < 0.01) and extension services (OR = 1.643, p < 0.01) as sources of information for PPE use. Female farmers (OR = 0.481, p < 0.01) were less likely to use PPE. With respect to location, farmers in Suaman district were less likely to use PPE (OR = 0.56, p < 0.010) compared with farmers in Wassa Amenfi. It is recommended that these factors should be considered for policy intervention. Reinforcement of appropriate pesticide storage and PPE education are necessary for securing safety in pesticide use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Notwithstanding the important role that agricultural services play in cocoa production, not much is known about the drivers of adoption intensity as well as the synergies between these services. This study seeks to fill this void by investigating the drivers of cocoa farmers access to essential agricultural services (ASs) in Sefwi Wiawso municipal of Ghana using cross-sectional data collected from 253 farmers. Multivariate probit (MVP) analysis was used to estimate the determinants of farmers' access to these services, while generalized Poisson regression model was used to assess the degree of access. The research found that synergies exist between the ASs. Furthermore, factors such as years of education, household size, farm size, involvement in off-farm work, and revenue from cocoa cultivation drive access to ASs. The degree of access is influenced by sex, years of education, farm size, revenue from cocoa production, and the value of farm assets. Also, farmland ownership influenced both access and the degree of access. The study recommends enhancing collaboration between public and private agricultural service providers to improve access to ASs to boost cocoa production in Ghana. Other policy measures include incentivizing extension agents to reach more farmers and encouraging farmers to join farmer groups since these groups are important linkages between farmers and extension agents and researchers. Plain Language Summary: Drivers of Cocoa Farmers' Access to Agricultural Services in Ghana The study investigated smallholder cocoa farmers'' access and intensity of access to agricultural services, and the factors driving access to these services. The study included a cross section of 253 farmers from Sefwi Wiawso Municipal of Ghana in the analysis. A multivariate probit model was used to assess the determinants of access to agricultural services while a generalized Poisson regression model was used to estimate the determinants of intensity of access. It was observed that there were synergies between the services implying that having access to multiple services is expected to lead to improved farm performance. Agricultural extension service was the most accessed agricultural service, while the least accessed service was access to farm credit. Factors such as years of education, household size, farm size, involvement in off-farm work, and revenue from cocoa cultivation drive access to agricultural services. The degree of access is influenced by sex, years of education, farm size, revenue from cocoa production, and the value of farm assets. Also, farmland ownership influenced both access and the degree of access. The study recommends enhancing collaboration between public and private agricultural service providers to improve access to agricultural services to boost cocoa production in Ghana. Other policy measures include incentivizing extension agents to reach more farmers and encouraging farmers to join farmer groups since these groups are important linkages between farmers and extension agents and researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relevance of cocoa agroforestry is widely discussed in debates on sustainability transition in cocoa, especially in the context of ending hunger and poverty among cocoa farmers. Whereas this has led to multiple cocoa agroforestry investments by NGOs, governments, and cocoa and chocolate companies in West and Central Africa, a notable gap exists in the literature on how these interventions respond to the needs of cocoa farmers who are typically framed as the primary target of equity in cocoa sustainability discussions. This paper contributes to bridging this gap by analyzing equity in implementing various cocoa agroforestry projects by different actors in Ghana's Juabeso-Bia Landscape (JBL). I find that the ongoing cocoa agroforestry initiatives may be broadly characterized as renovative or additive in terms of how they (re)shape the various components on cocoa farms. Yet, they are all designed to primarily enhance cocoa productivity even when seasonal food insecurity is one of the most pressing challenges among cocoa farmers in the JBL. The persistent neglect of food in cocoa production risks leaving poverty and hunger in cocoa households unaddressed. Additionally, it increases cocoa households' predisposition to forest conversion, making current forms of cocoa agroforestry an indirect driver of deforestation in the landscape. To transform the current situation, policymakers and scholars must reflexively integrate household food security in designing cocoa agroforestry, prioritizing farmers' involvement in dynamic agroforestry technologies that contribute directly to local food access over time. This contrasts the current policy and practice of cocoa agroforestry, focused on maintaining a prescribed number of shade trees on new or existing cocoa farms but highly likely to engender significantly greater inequity in the cocoa sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using primary data from 180 cocoa farmers in Osun State, Nigeria, the study defined the externalities associated with cocoa production, evaluated farmers' willingness to pay for externalities and identified the determinants impacting farmers' willingness to pay for externalities in cocoa production. To analyze the demographic traits of the sampled farmers in the research area, descriptive statistics were used. Farmers' willingness to pay for externalities and the price they are willing to pay for them were estimated using the double-hurdle model. The findings showed that the majority of the examined farmers were able to name externalities brought on by pesticide leaching and bad odor, but very few of them could name externalities brought on by fermentation. For pesticides leaking, offensive odor and fermentation externalities, the average projected amount farmers were willing to pay per kg of cocoa is 60, 81 and 54 k, respectively. The findings also indicated that a variety of explanatory factors, including age, household size, years of schooling, farming experience, participation in farmers' associations, farm size and income from cocoa farms, had an impact on farmers' decisions to pay for the identified externalities. According to the study's findings, producers were willing to spend an estimated average of 140.54 k per kilogram of cocoa produced in order to compensate for the externalities. Therefore, if conveyed through market mechanisms, the hidden costs and benefits resulting from identified externalities could lead to efficiency in the price of cocoa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of the resilience concept within socioecological systems has recently received much attention. Assessing the characteristics of cocoa agroecosystems in the dry and moist semi-deciduous ecological zones has become critical for resilience analysis in this era of climate change and the constant shrinking of cocoa suitability areas. Previous studies have used one of the dimensions of resilience to analyse complex adaptive systems, excluding critical factors and variables. This study applied a multi-criteria decision-making process, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) that accommodates the three dimensions of resilience, i.e., buffer capacity, adaptive capacity and self-organisation. The AHP is a multi-criteria decision-making tool that proceeds with the design of a hierarchy system for the goal, criteria, attributes and variables. Selected cocoa farmers were assigned weights related to criteria, attributes and variables in a comparison matrix. The resilience of the cocoa agroecosystems in Offinso Municipal and Adansi North Districts was 2.75 ± 0.06 (mean ± SD) and 3.23 ± 0.10 (mean ± SD), respectively. Buffer capacity contributed the highest proportion (44.3%) in the Offinso Municipal District, followed by adaptive capacity (38.7%) and self-organisation (17%). A similar trend was recorded for the Adansi North District: buffer capacity (42.9%), adaptive capacity (42.9%) and self-organisation (14.3%). Across the two study areas, shade trees, crop diversification, soil quality, cocoa variety, farm size, farm age, alternative livelihood, annual income and co-operative membership contributed prominently to the construction of cocoa agroecosystem resilience. The assessment of agroecosystem resilience is location-specific, and the study provides a simplified methodology for evaluating resilience. The paper aims to understand the importance of the components of the cocoa agroecosystem, and a simplified methodology for evaluating its resilience to perturbations. It presents a conceptual and methodological framework for the analysis and measurement of agroecosystem resilience in a participatory manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examined the impact of agricultural cooperatives on poverty depth of cocoa farmers' poverty levels in Southwestern Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used in selecting 362 cocoa farmers in the study area. The results of a two-step control function quasi-maximum likelihood revealed that age, household size, farm size, and farming experience positively influenced the poverty depth while cooperative membership negatively influenced the depth of poverty among cocoa farmers. This study concludes that cooperative organizations have the potential to reduce poverty effectively, provided their values and principles are respected. Hence, an advocate for continued policy incentives targeted at encouraging farmers to form as well as participate in agricultural cooperatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cocoa plantation in Suruh Village, Trenggalek Regency is the main supplier of cocoa beans to UPH Rumah Coklat owned by the Department of Agriculture and Food of Trenggalek Regency. For example, in cocoa farmers' participation in the "Tunggal Jaya" Farmers Group, farmers are taught to make rorak and worm palaces to deal with climate change which helps maintain soil moisture and increase fertility. The objectives of this study are to determine 1) the level of farmer activeness, 2) the level of productivity, 3) the level of income, and 4) the correlation between farmer activeness in farmer groups with productivity and income of cocoa farming in Suruh Village, Trenggalek Regency. The number of samples used was 111 respondents. Data analysis used the Likert scale, productivity analysis, income analysis, and Pearson correlation. The results of the study showed: 1) cocoa farmer activeness in farmer groups in Suruh Village, Trenggalek Regency is in the active category with an overall average score of 3.56; 2) the average productivity of cocoa farming is in the medium category at 0.54 tons/ha/year; 3) the average income of cocoa farming is Rp6,016,562/year; 4) the correlation between farmer activeness with productivity is 0.865, farmer activeness with income is 0.760, and productivity with income is 0.868. The direction of the three correlations is positive and significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of the agricultural sector is a strategic approach by the Malaysian Cocoa Board (MCB) to support the smallholder cocoa farmers' community (SCFC) in generating income and alleviating poverty. (SCFC) faces productivity issues in cocoa production, in terms of both quality and quantity. Consequently, MCB has implemented a cocoa productivity enhancement program to encourage the adoption of Malaysian good agricultural practices (MyGAP) among (SCFC). However, literature suggests that awareness and acceptance of MyGAP within the community remain low. Thus, this study aims to identify the knowledge, attitude, and practice levels of (SCFC) within the MyGAP context. A quantitative study was conducted using a survey research approach on 195 (SCFC) members, utilizing a questionnaire as the data collection tool. The census technique was applied to respondents across the East Coast zone of Sabah. The study employs the KAP Model as its theoretical foundation to measure respondents' knowledge, attitude, and practices toward MyGAP. Findings indicate that the majority of smallholders are first-generation cocoa farmers, aged between 51 and 60 years, with 1 to 20 years of experience in agriculture. The highest mean score for good agricultural practices (GAP) was observed in practice (mean = 4.20), followed by attitude (mean = 4.08), and knowledge (mean = 4.01) among (SCFC). This study contributes to community development knowledge by implementing MyGAP, thereby enhancing national food security through the cocoa commodity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article researches the intricate dynamics of decision-making within farmer cooperatives, focusing on the Upper Denkyira East Municipality in the Central region of Ghana, Africa. We selected a sample of 387 farmers using a combination of cluster and simple random sampling techniques. We gathered primary data through the administration of a structured questionnaire. Our findings reveal a pattern of rational decision-making among farmers, particularly concerning membership selection, access to credit facilities, procurement of agricultural inputs, and utilisation of welfare services within cooperatives. Demographic factors, such as age, gender, educational attainment, farming experience, and land ownership status, significantly influence these decisions. There is a significant association between decision-making processes and the adoption of agronomic practices, food security, and livelihood assets. Initiatives aimed at capacity-building should focus on providing training and educational resources to improve farmers' understanding of cooperative principles, financial management, and agricultural best practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Environmental & Social Management Journal / Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental is the property of Environmental & Social Management Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper proposes new estimates of child labor use in Côte d'Ivoire's cocoa farms that are certified free of child labor. The study relies on list experiments (LE) to overcome social desirability bias associated with measuring sensitive issues, implemented on a sample of 4,458 Ivorian cocoa farmers. Findings show that 24 percent of them were helped by at least one child under 16 for harvesting and breaking the cocoa pods during the past 12 months, 21 percent for preparing their farm, and 25 percent employed and paid at least one child to perform any task on their cocoa farm. These results are twice as high as those declared by farmers when directly questioning them about their child labor use. This study provides evidence that the LE method, while more cognitively demanding than the direct questioning method, can be successfully understood by populations with low levels of education. Findings further show that, in this setting, the LE estimates are robust to specific LE design changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: We assessed cocoa farmers' access to, demand for, and satisfaction with five innovation support services and the factors shaping them. Design/methodology/approach: We used data from 10 focus groups and a survey of 421 farmers in Central Cameroon. Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics, and regression models. Findings: Results showed that farmers mostly receive training and advice whereas inputs, credit, and equipment are the most demanded services. Training and advice obtained the highest perceived quality score. Conflicts around distribution and capture by leaders were relatively frequent regarding inputs and equipment. Farmers' satisfaction with service outcomes increased with the number of services received and any services above training and advice yielded higher outcomes. Location, involvement in certification, seniority, and leadership position in farmers' organisations were significantly associated with access and demand for at least two services while satisfaction with quality was mostly influenced by prior services received and the extent to which they matched expectations. Practical implications: Farmers' demands for services are diverse, hence the importance of providing them with either service bundles or options from which they can choose. Additional efforts are needed from service providers to create an enabling environment for the implementation of the disseminated sustainable management practices. Theoretical implications: Farmers' satisfaction with services can be analysed from different perspectives. Both endogenous and exogenous factors determine access to, demand for, and satisfaction with services. Originality/value: This research is the first to assess the provision of innovation support services in the cocoa sector using an analytical framework that combines demand, access, and satisfaction with five services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In cash crop producing countries, policy changes towards organic agriculture are critical for sustainable agriculture. This study explores the perceptions and reasons behind the lack of deliberate policies promoting organic cocoa production in Ghana and Ivory Coast, despite its potential benefits. In this qualitative study, 16 policymakers and experts were interviewed, and these data were thematically analysed using planned behaviour theory as the theoretical framework. The study reveals that policymakers perceive organic cocoa production favourably. The slow pace of research, innovation and development (RDI) remains one major barrier to the adoption of organic cocoa policy in Ghana and Ivory Coast. This implicitly leads to organic cocoa production being perceived and promoted as a ‘niche’. The study findings indicate that in emerging economies that solely depend on raw material production output to generate revenue for development, governments may not push through policies that encourage cocoa farmers to convert from conventional to organic cocoa production due to economic considerations. This study recommends the abandonment of the notion of organic cocoa production as a niche to enable Ghana and Ivory Coast to adopt organic cocoa policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The southern region of the department of Córdoba, Colombia, in the last ten years has shown growth in the cultivation of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) as an alternative to replace illicit crops and improve the quality of life of the families that They have gone through armed conflict. The production system has shown potential given its yields that exceed the national average; However, there is no evidence of the presence of a study that investigates the efficiency in the allocation or investment of resources. The objective of the work was to determine the technical efficiency of this crop with information obtained from a structured survey applied to 158 cocoa farmers in the municipalities of Puerto Libertador, Montelíbano, Tierralta and Valencia. The information obtained contained technical and socioeconomic variables that allowed calculating the current state of the technical efficiency of cocoa cultivation for this region of the country. The technique used was the stochastic frontier through the estimation of parameters by the least squares method to a Cobb Douglas type production function. Although the yields are not low, the results show that the farmer has a technical efficiency of 39%, attributed to underutilization of resources resulting in a production gap. It is concluded that this inefficiency is also associated with social factors such as the advanced age of farmers and low levels of schooling, mainly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial Pollination Technology (APT) is one of the current efforts implemented to ensure sustainable bean production in Ghana. The study examined the beneficiaries' perceived effectiveness of a piloted artificial pollination technology, and identified the best predictors of cocoa farmers' willingness to adopt the piloted APT in a district in the Eastern, Ghana. A total of 315 beneficiaries were interviewed for the study using structured interview schedule. The majority (80%) of the respondents perceived APT to be highly effective in increasing their yield after the APT. There was a statistically significant difference of approximately 50% increase in the yield of cocoa farmers' before and after the APT project. The majority (64%) of the respondents were willing to adopt APT after the pilot. The binary logistic regression analysis showed that seven predictors (age of cocoa farmers; educational level; number of cocoa farms; perceived complexity of APT; pruning of cocoa farm before pollination; pollination of farms at the recommended age; and pollination of hybrid variety) significantly contributed between 38.4% to 54.4% of the variance in cocoa farmers' willingness to adopt APT with "pollinating of recommended variety (hybrid)" being the overall best predictor (Odd ratio =2.9). The study recommends educating and training cocoa farmers on planting of hybrid cocoa for pollination, to increase their yields in cocoa production. Future research could also explore the use of robotic 'insects' in the pollination of cocoa flowers to ensure precise pollination of flowers, assist human workers performing laborious work and ensure sustainable cocoa production in Ghana and other cocoa growing regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines the potential outputs, outcomes, and impacts of the German Act on Corporate Due Diligence Obligations in Supply Chains (LkSG) on the smallholder cocoa farmers in West Africa. The study primarily relies on a literature review and an impact pathway to conduct a systematic analysis to identify the potential effects of the LkSG on smallholder cocoa farmers. The findings indicate that some, but not all of the risks addressed by the LkSG align with those faced by smallholder cocoa farmers and their families. Additionally, the research also reveals weaknesses, particularly in managing environmental risks, which the LkSG does not adequately cover. Our findings show that in the short- and medium-term, the LkSG has no potential effects on smallholder cocoa farmers. Furthermore, the potential positive impacts of the law on smallholder cocoa farmers will take a long time to realize, as the LkSG considers primarily tier-1 suppliers. Companies in Germany might reassess their supply chains to strive for an LkSG-risk-free supply chain, which could in the long term have sustained impacts on smallholder cocoa farmers. However, we recommend a comprehensive risk analysis of the cocoa supply chain to enhance the human rights of cocoa farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the crucial role of human labour in Ghana's cocoa farming sector, the industry grapples with pressing challenges that threaten its sustainability and productivity. This study considers the intricate dynamics of labour scarcity and rising costs, focusing on the Tafo District, Ghana. We specifically collected data from 100 cocoa farmers who have been farming for over 20 years in the Tafo District using the purposive sampling method, and selected 10 cocoa labourers using a snowball technique. We conducted a descriptive analysis of the data using SPSS and Excel spreadsheet. Labour scarcity, attributed to 'galamsey'1 and 'okada'2activities, was acknowledged by 95% of respondents, and 84% noted high labour costs. Farmers pointed out that labour shortages affect the timing and frequency of their farm operations. With labour scarcity attributed to illegal mining and commercial motorcycle transportation, effective government intervention to regulate these activities in agricultural areas will be required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amidst the agricultural landscape of Ghana lies a complex interplay of practices governing the use of approved pesticides and adherence to safety standards among farmers. By analysing data gleaned from 400 farmers through the multistage sampling technique, our aim is reveal the multifaceted influences that shape farmers' decisions in the use of approved pesticides and safety compliance. Age, education, marital status, farm ownership, experience, farm size, access to equipment and services, cooperative membership, secondary occupations, and income, significantly influence farmers' choices in the use of approved pesticides. Furthermore, compliance with safety protocols is found to be influenced by factors such as farm size, access to extension services, and the perceived relative advantage of pesticides. We advocate for policies that promote the use of approved pesticides and prioritise safety standards in agricultural practices. This may include strengthening regulatory frameworks, incentivising sustainable farming practices, and enforcing penalties for noncompliance with safety regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Various models and approaches are implemented to provide technical assistance and support to improve cocoa farmers' welfare in Ghana. The Farmer Business School (FBS), which is analogous to Farmer Field School (FFS), is one of the few initiatives of GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) and Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD). The main aim of the initiative is to train smallholder cocoa farmers to perceive cocoa production as a business. However, there is limited or conflicting evidence as to the effect of FBS on productivity and food security, especially in Ghana. This study assessed FBS participation and the participation's impact on productivity and food security of cocoa farmers. Design/methodology/approach: The study used primary data collected from 542 cocoa farmers in Central and Western North regions of Ghana and employed descriptive statistics, perception index and Endogenous Switching Regression (ESR) as analytical tools. Findings: The results, which reported an overall perception index of 0.7, indicated that the farmers had a strong positive perception on the FBS program. The results also showed that sex of a farmer, number of years of formal education, farm size, extension contact, perception, distance to extension outlet and membership of farmer-based organizations (FBOs) significantly influenced the decision to participate in FBS program. Also off-farm income, years of education and household size significantly influenced farm productivity and household food security. The results further showed that participation in FBS improved productivity and food security of cocoa farmers. Research limitations/implications: The study used data from two regions of Ghana, namely the Central region and the Western North region. Findings from studies using data covering all cocoa growing areas of Ghana could be more informative in formulating policies aimed at encouraging participation in FBS and consequently help improve cocoa productivity and food security. Originality/value: This article offers insights into the welfare effects of FBS on cocoa farmers as previous similar studies are without this information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental and climate change issues have exacerbated the existing gender inequalities in Ghana's cocoa sector. The current underrepresentation and unequal access to opportunities for women in climate action initiatives has negative implications for their livelihoods. This research focuses on how harvesting cocoa waste enabled the creation of a sustainable micro enterprise to encourage adoption of shaded cocoa production to generate biomass (waste) for organic compost production. The study followed a prescribed training programme for organic compost production and agribusiness management skills. The study employed the analysis of project notes and post-training community-visit observation records and interviews to assess the success of the training workshops and the overall project progress. Results from the analyses indicate that the knowledge and skills provided engendered motivation for a continuous and expanded adoption of climate-smart agri-innovation of shaded cocoa production. Further, the results show evidence of positive social, environmental, cultural, and economic impacts and favourable prospects of improved livelihoods for female cocoa farmers. These insights imply that SDG13, which calls for urgent climate action, can be integrated with SDG5, which places emphasis on gender equity, to improve the adoption of cocoa agroforestry and the livelihood of women in the cocoa sector of Ghana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of People & Nature is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

While there is a growing number of studies on the export‐ and firm‐level implications of non‐tariff measures for developing countries, there is little evidence on the trickle‐down effects on the farm level. In this paper, we analyse the recent regulations of the European Union regarding the maximum allowed cadmium (Cd) contents for cocoa‐derived products. We assess the potential economic costs associated with these Cd regulations for smallholder cocoa farmers in Ecuador. We rely on data from a nationwide survey among 1392 cocoa producers and a contingent valuation method to estimate producers' willingness to convert cocoa orchards to other land uses in case cocoa bean Cd levels exceed the limit. We estimate that farmers' economic cost of abandoning cocoa production is, on average, about 4400 US$ per hectare. Combining this value with a Cd distribution map and cocoa production statistics, we estimate that abandoning cocoa cultivation in areas with bean Cd concentrations above the 0.6 mg/kg target comes at a total economic cost of about 750 million US$. We conclude that the potential total economic cost of the EU Cd standard at the producer level in Ecuador could be very large if compliance strategies are not implemented to minimise welfare loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic generated diverse impacts and responses in agricultural value chains worldwide. Cocoa is a key crop for Ecuadorian exports, and the analysis of effects the pandemic had on value chain actors contributes to the understanding of their individual capacities to coping with a major shock. The purpose of this study was to assess the number and severity of impacts and responses implemented by two links in the cocoa value chain to the pandemic, based on a survey of 158 cocoa farmers and 52 cocoa intermediaries from the main cocoa-producing provinces of the northern coast of Ecuador in 2021. Surveyed farmers and part of the intermediaries form part of the sustainability program of a large Swiss chocolate manufacturer. The impacts and responses reported were grouped into seven resources according to the Activity System Approach. Then, a comparison between groups was applied using the Wilcoxon rank sum test for nonparametric data, determining the most severe impacts and effective resilience responses among the actors. The results reveal that farmers and intermediaries were similarly affected by the pandemic, reporting 21 and 16 negative impacts, respectively. Farmers experienced a higher number and severity of impacts on financial and social resources, while intermediaries on human and material resources. The strongest impact was the loss of sales, reported by 65% of farmers and 58% of intermediaries. Farmers implemented more social responses that they judged highly effective, while intermediaries implemented more human responses that they judged highly effective. Public policy should enhance the social resources of farmers by strengthening their associativity and the capacities of their members, as mechanisms to mitigate their vulnerability to future health and climate crises. The financial resources of both actors should be protected through public credit and agricultural insurance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the socioeconomic factors that predispose cocoa farmers to farm operation injuries, their choice of treatment and compliance with recommended safety standards. It used the multi-stage sampling technique to collect data from 400 cocoa farmers. Descriptive statistics, the ordered logistic and the multinomial logistic regression model were the method of analysis. The study found that injuries occur at all stages of farm operations, and sex, age, education level, alternative livelihood, household size, and farm size are associated with increased risk of injury. The majority of cocoa farmers prefer self-medication, with this practice being more common among young, less-educated male farmers with more farming experience and large farm sizes. It was found that compliance with recommended safety standards was influenced by sex, age, marital status, education level, farming experience, access to credit, and membership of a cooperative association. There is a need to raise awareness and provide education to cocoa farmers about the consequences of using herbal remedies and self-medication, and to emphasize the importance of seeking professional medical assistance. The study fills the literature gap by highlighting the socioeconomic factors that predispose farmers to injuries, the factors behind their choice of treatment methods and compliance with safety standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To evaluate the tool called "caotero", designed with ergonomic methods, for the transport of cocoa pods from the cultivation area to the fermentation area, in family-scale crops, in order to find out if it mitigates the load on the back and forced postures and allows the load to be transported. Methodology: Descriptive cross-sectional study, carried out in the San Nicolás Alto village, municipality of Lebrija, Santander, which included 18 cocoa farmers who participated voluntarily. The study was carried out using a unifactorial design, with two treatments: traditional transport and the cocoa tool. Results: It was found that the strength in the erector muscle of the back decreased by 19% when using the caotero tool with respect to traditional transport, allowing the load to be transported from the cultivation area to the fermentation area over terrain with slopes of up to 30°, covered with plant material and unevenness at different heights. On the other hand, it was found that back flexion increased to 58°, which is a negative effect on the worker's health. Conclusion: With the caotero tool, it is possible to reduce the force on the erector muscle of the back. In addition, it allows the load to be transported through the distribution of the load on other parts of the body, such as the hand-wrist-arm system. Likewise, further work could be done on its improvement, based on the collaborative and people-centered design of ergonomic tools, in order to improve their musculoskeletal health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lack of resources that (fflicts Ghanian and Ivorian enforcement of child labor prohibitions has allowed for the continued use of child labor in the cocoa industry. The current enforcement bodies not only sffer from serious coordination problems, but also fall victim to the harsh reality of cocoa farming which pays pitful daily wages to farmers. Child labor serves as a cocoa plantations are family-run, and thus the inclusion of children in the workforce is often a natural step, even where educational opportunities are available. To sacrifice productivity is to sacrifice one's livelihood. This Commentfirst analyses Ghana's and Cote d'Ivoire's child labor statutory regimes along with their enforcement apparatuses. This entails a deep dive into the fforts being taken ly government and nongovernment actors along with a discussion of contributing factors relating to the use of child labor. Finally, the Comment proposes a novel solution to establish an intergovernmental organisation, or commodity cartel, between Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire to better regulate and coordinate cocoa export and growth, modeled after existing commodity cartels. This Comment focuses on the organisational feasibility of such an organisation and the potential ramifications, both advantageous and detrimental, such consolidation would cause. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study takes a rural development perspective to examine the various reasons behind the use of children under 18 years in cocoa farms in Ghana. Using descriptive research, a sample size of 385 cocoa farmers was selected through the multi-stage sampling technique. The analyses included mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentage, and perception index. Although the level of usage of children on cocoa farms was relatively low (74%), majority of the children were involved in nursing of cocoa seedlings (87.8%), digging of holes for seedlings (76.3%), gathering of pods (55.7%) and heaping of pods (53.9%). Farmers involved children on cocoa farms for the following three reasons; to acquire indigenous knowledge of farming patterns (Mean=2.18), it is a way of life to learn their parents' occupation (Mean=2.18), and income source of the household (Mean=2.11). The challenge most farmers face in the use of children for farm activities is the fact that the children do not meet the required strength/energy (Mean=2.48). Policy efforts towards the complete eradication of using children under 18 years on cocoa farms must take into consideration the rural nature of the environments in which cocoa farming takes place in order not for it to backfire as is the case currently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The authors investigated cocoa farmers' access to subsidized fertilizer in Ghana and implications on productivity. Design/methodology/approach: Primary data were sourced from 435 cocoa farmers. Cragg hurdle and two-step Tobit model with continuous endogenous regressors/covariates were applied for the drivers of cocoa farmers' participation in fertilizer subsidy programme and productivity. Propensity score matching (PSM), inverse-probability weights (IPW) and augmented inverse-probability weights (AIPW) were applied for productivity impact assessment of fertilizer subsidy. Findings: All the farmers were aware of fertilizer subsidy for cocoa production in Ghana. Farmers became aware of fertilizer subsidy through extension officers, media and other farmers. Half of cocoa farmers benefitted from fertilizer subsidy. Averagely, cocoa farmers purchased 292 kg of subsidized fertilizer. Many socio-economic, farm-level characteristics and institutional factors determine cocoa farmers' participation in fertilizer subsidy programme, quantity of subsidized fertilizer obtained and productivity. Beneficiaries of fertilizer subsidy recorded higher cocoa productivity than non-beneficiaries. Hence, fertilizer subsidy for cocoa production in Ghana leads to a gain in productivity. Practical implications: There should be more investments in fertilizer subsidy so that all cocoa farmers benefit and obtain the required quantities. Originality/value: The authors provide new evidence on cocoa productivity gain or loss emanating from fertilizer subsidy by combining different impact assessment techniques for deeper analysis: PSM, IPW and AIPW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identified the determinants of cocoa farmers' access to credit in Ghana and estimated the impact of credit access on yield, yield gap, gross income, cost of production, and net income using propensity score matching. A total of 384 cocoa-farming households were included in the analysis. Only 33.3% of cocoa farmers accessed credit for production and cooperative unions were the main source of credit accessed by the farmers. The study finds significant positive impacts of agricultural credit on yield, gross income, and net income, while yield gap decreases significantly (by 12.2–16.7%) with access to credit. Policy efforts to improve cocoa farmers' access to credit could therefore enhance the productivity and profitability of cocoa production. It was found that male-headed households with access to credit derive greater benefits than their female counterparts. This may be attributed to differences in resource endowments and marginalization (between male and female heads). In addition, it was found that with access to credit, cultivating more than one cocoa farm could make cocoa production more productive and profitable. This indicates more efficient and profitable use of credit on fragmented farms, than on non-fragmented farms. However, under credit constraint, the practice of land fragmentation could be counterproductive. Impact Statement: Through the generation of foreign exchange, creation of employment, and the provision of other environmental and health related benefits, cocoa can be classified as a gem among the major export commodities from Ghana. Despite the benefits the commodity offers to the Ghanaian economy, the cocoa subsector has been subjected to myriads of production related challenges (including aging trees, low soil fertility, low or limited adoption of productivity-enhancing inputs, challenges with post-harvest management, etc.), which have led to declining trend in cocoa production, rising production costs and decreasing farm income. Majority of these challenges have in recent research efforts been linked to credit constraints. While efforts have been made by previous and current governments to improve cocoa farmers access to credit and enhance the performance of the subsector, credit remains insufficient for cocoa farmers, and very little has so far been documented empirically on the impact of agricultural credit on cocoa production, especially in Ghana. This study addresses this gap by analyzing the determinants of cocoa farmers access to agricultural credit and the impact of agricultural credit on productivity (yield, yield gap, and gross income), cost and returns from cocoa production. The study also identifies and documents potential heterogeneity in impacts of agricultural credit on male and female headed households, and between farmers who operate on fragmented and non-fragmented lands, stressing on the need to consider the differences in impact between these two groups when implementing measures to enhance farmers access to credit and the impact on farm performance. Findings from this study could guide policy formulation, especially in targeting of farmers for agricultural credit and in the implementation of measures to address challenges in cocoa production. To farmers, this study could enlighten them on the benefits of operating on fragmented lands with improved access to credit, and the risk of operating on fragmented lands under credit constraint [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty is a rural phenomenon due to the dominance of subsistence farming in rural communities. This study compares the estimates of unidimensional and multidimensional methodologies to analyse the factors that influence the poverty levels of cocoa farming households predominantly in rural Ghana. A census was conducted in the Chorichori community in Ghana using a structured questionnaire to gather information from 386 cocoa farming households. The multidimensional poverty index and expenditure-based poverty measures were used to estimate a bivariate probit regression to find the determinants of cocoa farming households' poverty. The study's outcome indicates that poverty among the cocoa farmers is jointly determined, unidimensionally and multidimensionally, by the access to healthcare, household child deaths, household's school-age child not in school, access to farm inputs, and the age of the household head. Whereas the education level of the household head, frequency of ill-health, use of external labour, migration status, and relationship to the household head were significant in determining multidimensional poverty, the number of household members, cooperative union membership, access to farm water, occupational diversity, household access to financial credit, and the marital status of the household head significantly determined unidimensional poverty among the cocoa farmers. Even though both poverty measures produced fairly different results, the study's findings showed the mutual and exclusive importance of the unidimensional and multidimensional poverty approaches in determining poverty and formulating good developmental policies for cocoa farmers. Therefore, selecting an approach should be based on prevailing circumstances, such as differences across locations and within households or entities. Impact statement: This research provides critical insights into the complex nature of poverty among cocoa farming households in rural Ghana. By comparing unidimensional and multidimensional poverty measures, the study reveals significant disparities in how poverty is assessed, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic challenges faced by rural communities. This dual approach not only uncovers the socioeconomic factors that contribute to poverty but also reveals discrepancies and complementarities between different poverty measurement methods, offering a nuanced perspective that can enhance the accuracy of poverty assessments. The findings highlight the need for policymakers, development agencies, and social planners to target interventions that address the specific factors contributing to poverty in rural areas, thereby improving the effectiveness of poverty alleviation programs. By informing more holistic and inclusive policies, this study supports efforts to reduce poverty among rural cocoa farmers, ultimately contributing to broader economic development and social equity in Ghana and similar contexts across developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Climate change has a greater influence on agriculture through local climate variability than global climate patterns. The impact of climate change on agricultural productivity and shifts in crop patterns varies significantly across regions. Its impact is closely tied to the technical abilities of farmers in managing their cocoa farming businesses. Technical skills encompass the proficiency of farmers in adopting adaptive cocoa cultivation techniques for planting, maintaining cocoa plants, as well as handling harvest and postharvest processes. The technical capability is interconnected with factors such as crop dependency on rainfall patterns, availability of infrastructure for quality inputs, soil degradation and fertility, nutrient levels, limited farmers' resources, and technology penetration. Given the significant impact of climate change on cocoa farmers, it becomes crucial to enhance their adaptive capacity to address these challenges. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the relationship between the characteristics of farmers and their adaptive capacity in responding to the impact of climate change. METHODS: Data were collected from 960 populations from two regencies, 4 districts, and 8 villages using the stratified sampling technique through interviews with 282 respondents. The sample size was determined using the Slovin formula through in-depth interviews with five key informants. The data collected were descriptively and statistically analyzed using the Excel program, which involved generating frequency distribution tables. Furthermore, the Mann-Whitney test, utilizing Statistical Product and Service Solution version 24, was employed to conduct a comparative analysis. FINDINGS: This result showed that the characteristics of farmers in the two areas were relatively the same in terms of age, non-formal education, number of family dependents, and perceptions of the climate. In terms of age, most farmers fell within the mature group of 36-48 years, with an average age of 44.63, considering in low category. The low productive age of farmers (44.63), along with their non-formal education, including training in climate field schools and integrated pest management field schools, as well as the number of dependents and their perceptions of climate change, emerged as significant parameters impacting farmers' decision-making processes. These factors also influenced their ability to cope, adapt, and seek new approaches to manage and mitigate the effects of climate change on their farming operations. CONCLUSION: The relationship between farmers' characteristics and adaptive capacity showed that the larger the land owned by farmers, the higher the managerial adaptability of farmers with lower technical ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Producer groups are influential in Ghana's cocoa value chain. They facilitate training, extension, education and inputs to their members. Still, there is no study on the impact of these producer groups on the technical efficiency and productivity of smallholder cocoa farmers. Using data from 217 and 199 members and non-members of cocoa producer groups, this study aimed to analyse producer groups' impact on smallholder farmers' technical efficiency and yield. The truncated normal distribution stochastic frontier model was adopted to estimate the farmers' technical efficiency. Since the model showed an issue of inefficiency among the farmers, we added socio-demographic and institutional variables to account for determinants of inefficiency. Finally, we adopted an endogenous treatment regression model to analyse producer groups' impact on the farmers' technical efficiency by accounting for observed and unobserved biases. The study results show that farm size, labour, and capital significantly positively impact the partial elasticity of production. Age, education, use of hybrid cocoa, involvement in off-farm jobs, extension access, and producer group membership significantly affect inefficiency. The results further show that producer group membership significantly impacts technical efficiency and yield from the endogenous treatment regression model. To deal with the issues of non-participating in the producer groups, the study recommends that producer groups should be made accessible to farmers. Policymakers can promote the formation and strengthening of producer groups, leading to improved productivity and technical efficiency among cocoa farmers. This approach empowers farmers, enhances their access to resources and knowledge, and enables them to collectively address common challenges, ultimately contributing to sustainable cocoa production and better livelihoods for cocoa farming communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adoption of cocoa production technologies has the potential to improve productivity and welfare of smallholder producers in low‐income countries. While studies investigating synergies in agricultural technologies are growing, empirical evidence on the determinants and impacts of adopting multiple cocoa production technologies on smallholder farmers' welfare is scarce. Therefore, this study contributes by analyzing the determinants and effects of adoption of multiple cocoa production technologies on the welfare of smallholder farmers in Ghana. To achieve this, we used the multinomial endogenous switching regression and multivalued inverse probability regression adjustment models to a random sample of 2233 cocoa farmers from Ghana. The results show that various socioeconomic characteristics (e.g., farmer's age and experience), resource constraints (e.g., land ownership and credit access), market‐related factors (e.g., distance to the market), and production shocks (e.g., rainfall) influence the adoption of multiple cocoa production technologies. Furthermore, the results reveal that adopting multiple production technologies significantly improves cocoa yields, gross income, per capita consumption expenditure, and reduces household food insecurity. Therefore, policies, such as financial support, need to be aimed at improving and strengthening smallholder cocoa producers' capacity to adopt synergistic conventional and non‐conventional cocoa production technologies to maximize smallholder farmers' welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plantations in Indonesia are dominated by smallholder plantations. This is both a challenge and an opportunity for investors and farmers to develop their businesses and achieve greater added value from cocoa agribusiness. Sepa Country is located in a coastal area with a village community, the majority of whom earn their living as farmers. Workers who work in the agricultural sector earn income which is used to meet living needs and improve household welfare. This research aims to determine the physical and non-physical factors of cocoa in Negeri Sepa, Amahai District, Central Maluku Regency. The method used in this research is quantitative descriptive to explain the factors that influence the farming of cocoa farmers in Sepa Country. Data analysis in this research uses a frequency table. The results of the frequency tabulation show that the factors that influence the farming of cocoa farmers in Negeri Sepa, Amahai District, Central Maluku Regency are physical factors (climatic conditions, soil & topography) and non-physical factors (cocoa farming management, capital, number of workers, transportation, marketing)., Credit Facilities and Technology) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Machine learning can be used for social good. The employment of artificial intelligence in smart agriculture has many benefits for the environment: it helps small farmers (at a local scale) and policymakers and cooperatives (at regional scale) to take valid and coordinated countermeasures to combat climate change. This article discusses how artificial intelligence in agriculture can help to reduce costs, especially in developing countries such as Côte d'Ivoire, employing only low-cost or open-source tools, from hardware to software and open data. We developed machine learning models for two tasks: the first is improving agricultural farming cultivation, and the second is water management. For the first task, we used deep neural networks (YOLOv5m) to detect healthy plants and pods of cocoa and damaged ones only using mobile phone images. The results confirm it is possible to distinguish well the healthy from damaged ones. For actions at a larger scale, the second task proposes the analysis of remote sensors, coming from the GRACE NASA Mission and ERA5, produced by the Copernicus climate change service. A new deep neural network architecture (CIWA-net) is proposed with a U-Net-like architecture, aiming to forecast the total water storage anomalies. The model quality is compared to a vanilla convolutional neural network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper relies on literature review and primary data collected through in-depth interviews with 21 respondents to examine the political economy dynamics of the cocoa value chain in Ghana. The historical analysis, which was based on the political settlements framework, has shown that the policies implemented in the cocoa sector went through four periods. The colonial era was characterised by a fairly corporate governance system and struggle between European traders and farmer cooperatives for monopoly over internal marketing of cocoa. This was followed by the early post-independence era (1957–1980), which was characterised by neopatrimonialism and over-taxation of cocoa farmers. The third phase (1980–2000) witnessed economic reforms and liberalisation. The fourth phase (2000 to present) saw increased public–private partnerships aimed at empowering women and promoting environmentally friendly farming activities. The paper concludes that the policies in the cocoa sector have, historically, created more benefits (rents) to political elite and their crony capitalists. Given that rent-seeking behaviour is a threat to the sustainability of the cocoa sector, the paper urges international development partners and civil society groups to demand greater accountability and transparency from the political elite and state institutions in the cocoa sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Agricultural Sciences / Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi is the property of Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Social networks can influence people's behaviour and therefore it is assumed that central individuals in social networks, also called "opinion leaders", play a key role in driving change in agricultural and food systems. I analyse the outcomes of an intervention (that encouraged Sulawesi smallholder farmers to take a specific action toward improving the health of their cocoa trees) to assess the impact of engaging opinion leaders in agricultural programs that aim to change farmers' practices. The intervention has been implemented through (a) 18 opinion leaders identified by interviews and a social network survey of 1885 cocoa farmers; and (b) 18 randomly selected farmers who were not central in local social networks. The obtained social networks and statistical data were quantitatively analysed and the results were interpreted with input from the field staff. Contrary to expectations, the highly socially central opinion leaders were not more effective in promoting the initiative in their communities. On average, randomly selected low-centrality farmers convinced almost twice as many of their peers to take the recommended action as compared to the identified opinion leaders (17.1 versus 8.6) but the variation within the random group was also significantly higher. Importantly, while the identified opinion leaders were mostly senior men, women performed better in influencing others into taking action even when their centrality in local social networks of agricultural advice was lower. I discuss the implications of the conventional selection of perceived opinion leaders as model farmers for achieving sustainable and equitable change at scale in agriculture and propose practical alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supply chain management is crucial in meeting consumer demand for raw materials and finished products. Effective supply chain processes aim to distribute products efficiently and at the right time, place, and cost to meet all requirements at every level. In the cocoa supply chain, the roles of actors such as cocoa farmers, collectors, wholesalers, agro-industry, and exporters are very important. While the availability of cocoa in the upstream sector is essential for the long-term viability of the cocoa agro-industry, the uncertainty of cocoa prices for farmers can threaten its sustainability. To overcome this problem, this study aims to examine the role of each supply chain actor in the cocoa pricing system. Descriptive and qualitative research methods were used. Interviews with cocoa supply chain actors in Pasaman, West Pasaman, and Padang Pariaman Regencies provided research data sources. According to the research findings, the price-fixing method, cocoa at the farmer and trader level, has been used thus far as the value pricing method received by consumers, which means that the price is based on consumer perceptions of the value of the cocoa being sold. Agro-industry product pricing is based on markup costs for the products produced. Meanwhile, cocoa pricing for exporters is adjusted to reflect the current global cocoa price. So, it is necessary to have a government policy that regulates the role of supply chain actors in determining cocoa prices at the farm level to improve the welfare of farmers, thus ensuring the development of a sustainable cocoa agro-industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]