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To examine the changes in children's weight-for-height at six monthly intervals between birth and three years old (3yo) from different counties across Chile and to determine if children had overweight or obesity, and if so, whether it was a transient or persistent change.Longitudinal data were obtained from routine medical check-ups and 8,373 children were selected from nine counties in Chile through a non-randomised sample design. Weight-for-height z-scores (WHZ) were generated and categorized as wasted, normal, overweight, and obese using WHO standards. Repeated-measures ANOVA were used to analyse the changes in WHZ over the seven measurements as well as based on having normal, overweight, or obese WHZ at 3yo. The number of times having overweight or obesity was counted (from 0 to 7 times). The timing of having overweight and obesity was computed as well as all combinations of the patterns.Mean WHZ significantly increased up to 18months of age and declined thereafter (p0.001). Overall mean WHZ was 0.743, prevalence of overweight 31.2% and prevalence of obesity 10.0%. Children categorised with overweight or obesity at 3yo showed significantly higher and sustained pattern of weight gain compared with children with normal WHZ. Once a child had overweight or obesity they tended to remain with it and did not return to a weight-for-height in the normal range.The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in Chilean children is of concern. There is a need for greater healthcare promotion and prevention of this disease from infancy.

To examine how much of the variation in weight-for-height (WHZ) z-scores were associated with age at which breastfeeding ceased and provision of fortified cow’s milk (Leche Purita Fortificada, LPF) commenced in a cohort of children studied from birth to 3 years of age. Longitudinal data were obtained from routine medical check-ups on 8373 children from nine Chilean counties through convenience sampling. WHZ z-scores were generated at six-monthly intervals using WHO 2006 standards from birth to 3 years old (seven measurements). Age of cessation of breastfeeding and age of commencement of LPF were the independent variables. Repeated-measures ANOVA were used to analyse the changes in WHZ over the seven measurements. Binomial generalised estimating equations (GEE) were used to analyse the effect of each independent variable on the change from normal to overweight, and normal to obese over the seven measurements. ANOVA indicated that children given LPF milk before 3 months of age had, on average, higher mean WHZ of about 0.11 SD from 18 months of age onwards (p

SummaryThe aim of this study was to test whether Body Mass Index (BMI), waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1) and Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF) vary in relation to social class at birth and adulthood, educational level and region of residence, and also with inter-generational social, educational and regional mobility/migration. The study used 5702 adults (2894 males and 2718 females) from the longitudinal British National Child Development Study (all children born in England, Scotland and Wales during the first week in March 1958 with follow-up throughout childhood and adulthood, most recently at 55 years of age). In both sexes BMI and waist circumference tended to increase from social classes I+II to IV+V and higher social class was associated with higher mean FEV1 and PEF. Better-educated adults tended to have lower BMI and waist circumference, and higher mean FEV1 and PEF. Women from Wales had the highest mean BMI and waist circumference but the lowest mean PEF, while women in Scotland had the highest mean systolic blood pressure and the lowest mean FEV1. For men only, FEV1 and PEF showed regional variation and the lowest mean FEV1 was in Wales and the lowest PEF in Yorkshire & Humberside. Inter-generational social mobility was not found to be associated with any of the biomarkers, while educational mobility was related only to FEV1 and PEF. In both sexes, in unadjusted regression analysis regional migrant cohort members tended to have a lower mean BMI than sedentes. Regional male migrants also tended to have a lower waist circumference and a higher FEV1 and PEF than sedentes.

Objective:The current study assessed changes in children and mothers’ nutritional status before and after raising Bangladeshi households out of extreme poverty through an income-generating activities (IGA) programme.Design:Extreme poor households took part in the IGA programme for 2 years and recruitment took place over four waves in annual cycles. Children and mothers were measured with regarding their nutritional status before and after the IGA programme commenced.Settings:Rural Bangladesh.Subjects:Three-hundred and eighty-two children under 5 years of age at recruitment, and their mothers.Results:After 2 years of the IGA programme, the prevalence of stunting significantly declined from 40·3 % to 33·0 % (P = 0·003), anaemia declined from 51·6 % to 44·0 % (P = 0·020) while mothers’ CED (Chronic Energy Deficiency) declined from 52·0 % to 42·7 % (P < 0·001), but no significant changes were found in children’s wasting, declining from 25·4 % to 21·5 %, underweight which remained the same at 43·2 %, while mothers’ anaemia rose from 39·3 % to 42·7 %. There were also highly significant improvements in household socio-economic status. Increases in socio-economic security (especially in relation to cash savings and net income) and improvements in food quantity and quality (indicated by greater food diversity and animal food intake) were associated with normal nutritional status, and cessation of open defecation was associated with reduction in mothers’ and child anaemia.Conclusion:The IGA programme was associated with increased household socio-economic security, such as asset accumulation, food security and sanitation, and with improvements in the nutritional status of children and their mothers in extreme poor households.

SummaryThe nutritional status of under-five-year-old children is a sensitive indicator of a country’s health status as well as economic condition. The objectives of this study were to analyse trends in the nutritional status in Bangladeshi children over the period 1996–2007 and to examine the associations between nutritional and socioeconomic status variables. Bangladesh Demographic Health Surveys (BDHS) were the source of data, and a total of 16,278 children were examined. The Z-scores of the children were analysed as continuous as well as categorical variables (stunted, underweight and wasted). The socioeconomic status variables used were region, urban–rural residence, education and occupation of the parents, house type and household possession score. A series of General Linear Model and Sequential Linear and Binary Logistic Regression analyses were done to assess the relationship between demographic and socioeconomic variables and nutritional status. The trends of Z-scores were analysed by survey, as well as by child birth cohort. Region, house type, educational level of parents and household possession score showed significant associations with all three Z-scores of children after removing the effects of age, period of DHS and other explanatory variables in the model. No significant sex difference was observed between any of the Z-scores. There were improvements in mean WAZ and HAZ between 1996 and 2007 but deterioration in mean WHZ over this period. The obesity rate was below 2% in 2007, although the absolute numbers of obese children had nearly doubled in this 12-year period. Children from poorer households showed greater improvement than their better-off counterparts. The study reveals that over the years there has been substantial improvement in nutritional status of under-five children in Bangladesh and the main gains have been amongst the lower socioeconomic groups; it is also evident that malnutrition in Bangladesh is a multidimensional problem, like poverty itself, and warrants a proper policy mix and programme intervention.

The objectives of the study were to see how much of the variation in weight-for-height z-scores (WHZ) and surface area/body mass ratio (SA/mass) were associated with regional (county) differences including mean temperature.Longitudinal data were obtained from routine medical check-ups on 8,373 children from nine counties across Chile. WHZ and SA/mass were calculated from weight and height from birth to 3-years old at 6 monthly intervals. County of birth was used as an independent variable after controlling for sociodemographic factors. Sequential repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to analyze the changes in WHZ and SA/mass over the seven measurements from birth to 3 years of age. Simple and partial Pearson correlations were calculated between WHZ and annual mean temperature and between SA/mass and annual mean temperature after controlling for socioeconomic factors.County of birth was significantly (p 0.001) associated with both WHZ and SA/mass. There was a progressive decrease in WHZ means and a progressive increase in SA/mass means from colder to warmer counties. Significant negative correlation in WHZ (r -0.864) and significant positive correlations in SA/mass (r 0.821) were found with the annual mean temperature from 18 months of age onwards and in the overall mean age.This study suggests that WHZ and SA/mass variation may be influenced by ecogeographical factors in this Chilean sample.

A large number of biosocial variables have been shown to associate with age at menarche, but the results are inconsistent and differentiate not only between countries but within countries as well.This study examined age at menarche in a British national cohort in relation to 21 biosocial and anthropometric variables.The analyses were based on 4483 girls from the British National Child Development Study (NCDS).The majority of girls reached menarche between 12-14 years of age. Girls from smaller families, those living in the East and South East, South West, West Midlands and Wales regions, in tied housing and uncrowded conditions, not sharing a bedroom, not having free school meals, whose families lived in households without financial problems had started menstruating earlier than their peers from families with lower socioeconomic status. However, when all the significant variables were analysed together significant associations remained only for mother's age at menarche, height and weight at 7 years, family size and tenure.The results of this study support the hypotheses that intra-uterine growth and conditions in early life as well as socio-economic background are associated with the timing of menarche and that greater childhood growth and better SES are related to earlier menarche.

Objectives Very few studies have investigated whether spousal similarity for height is related to fertility. This study examined the relationship between mating for height and fertility after correction for spousal age, social class, education, and region. Methods The data used were collected as part of the British National Child Development Study and 6,535 husband–wife pairs for whom data were available on measured height, spousal age, education, social class, region, and the number of children were studied. Results Fertility varied between the regions with the highest fertility in Scotland. Fertility tended to increase from more to less educated and from higher to lower social classes in both sexes. These relationships remained significant after correction for mean age. A negative association between husband's height in relation to fertility was noted as well as the negative and the quadratic term for wife's height. Both the linear as well as the quadratic effects of parental height difference were significantly related to fertility, but after removing the effects of mean age, age difference and mean height these effects disappeared. Analysis of region, mean age, social class, education, height, and differences in age, social class, education, and height together revealed that 32.4% of variation in fertility was explained but only mean age, mean social class and mean height and difference in social class remained significant. Conclusions The results did not provide any evidence that differential fertility was associated with spousal height difference after taking into account age, social class, education and region. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27:553–563, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Background: Undernutrition among mothers and children is currently a major public health and development concern in Bangladesh. In literature relating to nutritional determinants, of particular interest is the geography, as regions with poor nutrition tend to pull down the overall nutritional status of the country. As such, reducing the regional gap can alone reduce overall undernutrition significantly, especially when regional gaps are high. The aim of this study is, therefore, to assess the magnitude of inequalities in undernutrition in children aged under 5 years in Bangladesh and their mothers, and relate this to the administrative divisions of the country. Methods: The Bangladesh Demographic and Health Surveys (1996–1997, 1999–2000, 2004 and 2007) were the sources of data, and a total of 16 278 mother–child pairs whose records were complete for the required individual and household-level variables were included in the analysis. Maternal nutritional status was measured by the body mass index (BMI). Weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height z-scores were calculated by use of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards to assess the nutritional status of children aged under 5 years. General linear model, sequential linear and multinomial logistic regression analyses were done to assess the inequalities in maternal and child nutritional status among the six administrative divisions of Bangladesh. Socioeconomic variables that were controlled for were residency, education and occupation of the mothers and their husbands, house type and possession score in the household. Results: Maternal BMI and prevalence of underweight, stunting and wasting in children aged under 5 years were found to vary significantly according to administrative division. Of the six divisions, Sylhet was found to have highest prevalence of undernourished mothers and children. The trends from 1996 to 2007 also established Sylhet as the poorest-performing region overall. Conclusion: The Sylhet administrative division needs specially focused attention from policy-makers if the overall performance of the health, nutrition and population sector is to reach the targets set by the country.

Positive assortative mating for education and social position has been widely reported in a number of countries, but very few studies have tested whether or not educational or social class homogamy is related to differential fertility.This study examined the relationship between educational and social class assortative mating and fertility in a British national cohort.The analyses were based on 7452 husband-wife pairs from the British National Child Development Study (NCDS).The mean fertility was 3.22 children per couple; the number of children significantly increased from higher to lower social classes and from the more educated to the less educated. The extent of assortative mating for social class and educational level was related to fertility; as educational assortative mating decreased so did the average number of children, whereas the opposite trend was observed for social class. When assortative mating for education and social class were considered together, educational assortative mating was the more significant predictor of the number of children and educationally homogamous couples had higher fertility independent of their social class assortative mating.The relationship between assortative mating and fertility for education and social class appeared to be acting in the opposite direction.

SummaryThe relationship between inter-generational social mobility of sons and daughters between 1958 and 1991 and biosocial variables, i.e. birth order, number of children in family, father's social class, region, educational attainment of child and father, educational and cognitive test scores (reading, mathematics, verbal and non-verbal IQ tests), was studied in a large British cohort study. The data used were collected as part of the British National Child Development Study (NCDS). The extent of social class mobility was determined inter-generationally and was categorized as none (no change in social class between the father's and index child's social class), upwardly mobile (where the index child moved up one or more social classes compared with their father) or downwardly mobile (where the index child moved down one or more social classes compared with their father). All of the biosocial variables were associated with social mobility when analysed separately. Multivariate analyses revealed that the most significant predictor of mobility categories in both sexes was education of the cohort member, followed by social class of the father. In both sexes mathematics score was a significant predicator, while in sons reading and non-verbal IQ scores were also important predictors. In the light of these results, it appears that social mobility in Britain takes place largely on meritocratic principles.

ObjectiveTo determine how much of the variation in nutritional status of Bangladeshi children under 5 years old can be attributed to the socio-economic status of the family.DesignNutritional status used reference Z-scores of weight-for-age (WAZ), height-for-age (HAZ) and weight-for-height (WHZ). A ‘possession score’ was generated based on ownership of a radio, television, bicycle, motorcycle and telephone, and the availability of electricity, with categories of 0 to 4+ possessions. A five-point (quintile) ‘poverty index’ was created using principal component analysis.SettingThe Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2004 was the source of data.SubjectsA sample of 4891 children aged ResultsSome 57·8 % of the sample was either stunted, wasted or underweight (7·7 % were stunted, wasted and underweight). Of those stunted (48·4 %), 25·7 % were also underweight. Underweight and wasting prevalences were 40·7 % and 14·3 %, respectively. Mean WAZ, HAZ and WHZ did not differ by sex. Children of mothers with no education or no possessions were, on average, about 1 sd more underweight and stunted than those with higher educated mothers or with 4+ possessions. The possession score provided much greater discrimination of undernutrition than the poverty index. Nearly 50 % of children from households with no possessions were stunted, wasted or underweight (only 27 % in the poorest quintile), compared with only 3–6 % of children from households with 4+ possessions (over 13 % in the richest quintile).ConclusionsMaternal education and possession score were the main predictors of a child’s nutritional status. Possession score was a much better indicator of undernutrition than the poverty index.

ObjectivesTo assess whether the Bangladesh Integrated Nutrition Programme (BINP) correctly identified which pregnant women should be enrolled in the food supplementation programme, whether supplementation commenced on time and was taken on a regular basis. A second objective was to determine whether food supplementation led to enhanced pregnancy weight gain and reduction in the prevalence of low birth weight.DesignA one-year community-based longitudinal study.SettingA rural union of Bhaluka Upazila, Mymensingh, located 110 km north-west of Dhaka City, the capital of Bangladesh.ParticipantsA total of 1104 normotensive, non-smoking pregnant women who attended Community Nutrition Centres were studied from first presentation at the centre until child delivery.ResultsPregnant women who had a BMI of 2on first presentation should have been selected for supplementary feeding (2512 kJ (600 kcal)/d for six days per week) starting at month 4 (16 weeks) of pregnancy. However, of the 526 women who had BMI < 18·5 kg/m2, only 335 received supplementation; so the failure rate was 36·3 %. In addition, of those receiving supplementation, only 193 women (36·7 % of 526 women) commenced supplementation at the correct time, of whom thirty-two (9·6 % of 335 women) received supplementation for the correct number of days (100 % days). There were no significant differences in mean weight gain between BMI < 18·5 kg/m2supplemented or non-supplemented groups or between the equivalent groups with BMI ≥ 18·5 kg/m2. Weight gain was inversely related to initial weight, so lighter women gained relatively more weight during their pregnancy than heavier women. The mean birth weight in the supplemented and non-supplemented groups was 2·63 kg and 2·72 kg, respectively. Mothers with BMI < 18·5 kg/m2who were or were not supplemented had almost equal percentages of low-birth-weight babies (21 % and 22 %, respectively).ConclusionThe study raises doubt about the efficiency of the BINP to correctly target food supplementation to pregnant women. It also shows that food supplementation does not lead to enhanced pregnancy weight gain nor does it provide any evidence of a reduction in prevalence of low birth weight.

In order to test the impact of Giardia and geohelminthic infection on infant growth faltering in Bangladesh, a randomised double-blind placebo controlled intervention of 36 weeks' duration was conducted in a rural community located 40 km northwest of Dhaka. Infants aged between 3 and 15 months were randomly assigned to either anti-Giardia and anthelminthic treatment, anti-Giardia treatment only, or a control. Weight and supine length were recorded every 4 weeks. Every 12 weeks intestinal permeability (lactulose/mannitol ratio), haemoglobin, plasma albumin, alpha-1-acid glycoprotein, IgG and Giardia-specific IgM (GSIgM) and eggs of the three common geohelminths and G. intestinalis cysts were determined. Data on 222 fully compliant infants were analysed. No significant differences in intestinal permeability, biochemical or anthropometric variables were found between the intervention groups, although there were associations between improvement in small intestinal mucosal function and better weight-for-age and weight-for-height (length) Z-scores. GSIgM titres indicated high endemicity with rapid re-infection of Giardia among infants; over 95% of infants were positive throughout the study, whereas the stool examination showed very few infants with either geohelminth eggs or Giardia cysts.

SummaryThe aim of this study was to find out whether differences exist in the physical development, nutritional status and psychosomatic status of children living in deprived regions of Hungary compared with the Hungarian national reference values. The Hungarian government’s decree No. 24/2003 created a complex indicator of social and economic conditions by which the country’s regions were graded into deprived and non-deprived regions. This study examined 3128 children (aged 3–18 years) living in the deprived regions and their biological status was compared with the national reference values (2nd Hungarian National Growth Study). Children’s body development was assessed via some absolute body dimensions. Nutritional status was estimated by BMI with children being divided into ‘underweight’, ‘normal’, ‘overweight’ and ‘obese’ categories. For children aged 7–18 years a standard symptoms list was used to characterize psychosomatic status. The subjects were asked to rate their health status as excellent, good, fair or poor. The body development of children living in these deprived regions was significantly retarded compared with the national references in the age groups 7–9 years and 14–17 years for boys and in the age groups 4–6 and 14–17 for girls. The prevalence of underweight was significantly higher in children and adolescents living in deprived regions (boys: 4.8%; girls: 5.9%) than the national references (boys: 2.9%; girls: 4.0%), while the prevalence of overweight and obese children did not differ between deprived regions (boys: 20.2%; girls: 19.8%) and the national references (boys: 21.5%; girls: 19.1%). Children and adolescents living in the deprived regions rated their health status worse, and experienced more psychosomatic complaints (abdominal discomfort and fear), than the national references. Although the majority of body dimensions of children in deprived regions were close to the 50th centile of the Hungarian national references, a sizeable minority (31%) were 0.20SD or more away from the median value, which has implications as to how social, medical and public welfare policy can be shaped.

Skin pigmentation is one of the most variable phenotypic traits in humans. A non-synonymous substitution (rs1426654) in the third exon of SLC24A5 accounts for lighter skin in Europeans but not in East Asians. A previous genome-wide association study carried out in a heterogeneous sample of UK immigrants of South Asian descent suggested that this gene also contributes significantly to skin pigmentation variation among South Asians. In the present study, we have quantitatively assessed skin pigmentation for a largely homogeneous cohort of 1228 individuals from the Southern region of the Indian subcontinent. Our data confirm significant association of rs1426654 SNP with skin pigmentation, explaining about 27% of total phenotypic variation in the cohort studied. Our extensive survey of the polymorphism in 1573 individuals from 54 ethnic populations across the Indian subcontinent reveals wide presence of the derived-A allele, although the frequencies vary substantially among populations. We also show that the geospatial pattern of this allele is complex, but most importantly, reflects strong influence of language, geography and demographic history of the populations. Sequencing 11.74 kb of SLC24A5 in 95 individuals worldwide reveals that the rs1426654-A alleles in South Asian and West Eurasian populations are monophyletic and occur on the background of a common haplotype that is characterized by low genetic diversity. We date the coalescence of the light skin associated allele at 22–28 KYA. Both our sequence and genome-wide genotype data confirm that this gene has been a target for positive selection among Europeans. However, the latter also shows additional evidence of selection in populations of the Middle East, Central Asia, Pakistan and North India but not in South India., Author Summary Human skin color is one of the most visible aspects of human diversity. The genetic basis of pigmentation in Europeans has been understood to some extent, but our knowledge about South Asians has been restricted to a handful of studies. It has been suggested that a single nucleotide difference in SLC24A5 accounts for 25–38% European-African pigmentation differences and correlates with lighter skin. This genetic variant has also been associated with skin color variation among South Asians living in the UK. Here, we report a study based on a homogenous cohort of South India. Our results confirm that SLC24A5 plays a key role in pigmentation diversity of South Asians. Country-wide screening of the variant reveals that the light skin associated allele is widespread in the Indian subcontinent and its complex patterning is shaped by a combination of processes involving selection and demographic history of the populations. By studying the variation of SLC24A5 sequences among a diverse set of individuals, we show that the light skin associated allele in South Asians is identical by descent to that found in Europeans. Our study also provides new insights into positive selection acting on the gene and the evolutionary history of light skin in humans.

Public Health Nutrition, 17 (9), ISSN:1368-9800, ISSN:1475-2727

Public Health Nutrition, 15 (9), ISSN:1368-9800, ISSN:1475-2727

SummaryUsing a sample of 2090 British father and son pairs the relationships between social and geographical intra- and inter-generational mobility were examined in relation to height, weight and body mass index (BMI). There was much more social mobility than geographical (regional) migration. Social mobility and geographical migration were not independent: socially non-mobile fathers and sons were more likely to be geographical non-migrants, and upwardly socially mobile fathers and sons were more likely to be regional migrants. Upwardly socially mobile fathers and sons were, on average, taller and had a lower BMI than non-mobile and downwardly mobile fathers and sons. In general, no significant associations were found between geographical migration and height or weight. Migrating fathers had a lower BMI than sedentes, as did their sons who migrated between 1965 and 1991. There was no significant interaction that indicated that social mobility and geographical migration were acting in a simple additive way on height, weight and BMI.

Miltefosine (target dose of 2.5 mg/kg/day for 28 days) is the recommended treatment for visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar) in Bangladesh on the basis of data from India. We evaluated miltefosine in a phase IV trial of 977 patients in Bangladesh. At the six-month final follow up, 701 were cured. 24 showed initial treatment failure, and 95 showed treatment failure at 6 months, although 73 of the 95 showed treatment failure solely by the criterion of low hemoglobin values. One hundred twenty-one patients were not assessable. With the conservative assumption that all low hemoglobin values represented treatment failure, the final per protocol cure rate was 85%. Of 13 severe adverse events, 6 led to treatment discontinuation and 7 resulted in deaths, but only 1 death (associated with diarrhea) could be attributed to drug. Nearly all non-serious adverse events were gastrointestinal: vomiting in 25% of patients and diarrhea in 8% of patients. Oral miltefosine is an attractive alternative to intramuscular antimony and intravenous amphotericin B for treatment of kala-azar in Bangladesh.

Preface 1. Reproduction and environment Alan S. McNeilly 2. Genetic damage and male reproduction Michael Joffe 3. The microenvironment in health and cancer of the mammary gland John P. Wiebe 4. The energetic cost of physical activity and regulation of reproduction Darna L. Dufour 5. Energetic cost of gestation and lactation in humans Prakash Shetty 6. Adaptive maternal, placental and fetal responses to nutritional extremes in the pregnant adolescent: lessons from sheep Jacqueline M. Wallace 7. Growth and sexual maturation in human and non-human primates: a brief review Phyllis C. Lee 8. The evolution of post-reproductive life: adaptionist scenarios Lynnette Leidy Sievert 9. Analysing the characteristics of the menstrual cycle in field situations in humans: some methodological aspects Jean-Christophe Thalabard, Laurence Joubin, Lyliane Rosetta and C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor 10. An insidious burden of disease: the pathological role of sexually transmitted diseases in fertility Geoff P. Garnett 11. Family planning and unsafe abortion Anna Glasier 12. Global sexual and reproductive health: responding to the needs of adolescents Molly Secour-Turner, Linda H. Bearinger and Renee Sieving 13. Understanding reproductive decisions Andrew Hinde Index.

This paper describes the main quality control methods for determining human observer measurement error and instrument error focusing on intra-observer and inter-observer technical error of measurements (TEMs) and relative TEM, and the coefficient of reliability (R). R values above 0.95 are indicative of small errors. To compare variances between different variables, the coefficient of variation, a measure of relative variability, is used. The total variation of a character can be partitioned into genetic, environmental, and error components. Determination of the genetic component of variation (heritability) is usually obtained from twin studies or other family studies. A good environment improves the population mean, whereas a poor environment can lower the population mean without any change in the underlying genetic structure. Worked examples of how to calculate TEM, R, and heritability are provided.

Use of BMI as a surrogate for body fat percentage is debatable and universal BMI cut-off points do not seem appropriate; lower cut-off points than currently recommended by WHO should be used in some populations, especially in Asia. The adult WHO BMI database indicates that, on average, women are more obese than men, while men are more likely to be pre-obese than women. Urban rates of overweight and obesity are generally higher than rural rates in both sexes. The trend in pre-obesity and obesity over time is generally upward, with very marked increases in the USA and UK in both sexes over the last 10 years.

This survey examined the prevalence and intensity of Strongyloides fuelleborni kellyi and other intestinal helminths in children 5 years of age or under living near Kanabea, Papua New Guinea. Of 179 samples, 27% of the children tested positive for Strongyloides, with 81% of these children being a year or less in age. Overall, 68% of the children had one or more infections including Ascaris lumbricoides and hookworm (Necator americanus) as well as Strongyloides. Egg counts in the stools ranged from 100 to 98,300 eggs/ml for Strongyloides, 100 to 59,200 eggs/ml for Ascaris and 100 to 3400 eggs/ml for hookworm. There were significant associations between Strongyloides intensity and weight for age and weight for height such that children with higher intensities had, on average, lower z-scores. Relationships between the prevalence of helminth infections and socioeconomic factors were also observed. Logistic regression models showed that children living farther away from Kanabea (more than 2 hours' walking distance), in smaller households (5 or less people) and with uneducated mothers best predict children with Strongyloides. Two of these variables also predicted the presence of hookworm: maternal education and household size. However, in contrast to Strongyloides, a larger household size (6 or more people) was significantly associated with the presence of hookworm. House type was associated with the prevalence of Ascaris, with children living in houses with tin roofs being less likely to have Ascaris than those living in traditional houses. In addition, maternal education was associated with Ascaris intensity in those children with infection, such that the mean intensities were greater in children of uneducated mothers.

A 27-month longitudinal study of 140 Bangladeshi mothers living in three tea gardens examined the effect of maternal factors (mother's age, number of live births, birth interval, and mother's work status) and sex of the infant on the duration and bout frequency of breastfeeding over 8-hr daytime periods. Prolonged breastfeeding of the infant was observed, but there was a sharp decline in duration of breastfeeding over the first 6 months, followed by a more gradual diminution thereafter. The feeding bouts showed a different pattern, with a more gradual decline over time. Housewives consistently showed a greater duration and bout fre- quency than women in paid employment as tea-pluckers. Over the first 6 months, primigravid mothers breastfed more frequently, but not thereafter. Older mothers (>35 years of age) breastfed with higher frequency during the first 2 months, but thereafter, the bout frequency decreased with increasing age of the infant. Over the 27-month study, maternal work status was the main factor associated with the duration and frequency of breastfeeding, with signifi- cantly higher frequency and duration among housewives. However, in the first 6 months after birth, there was very little difference in frequency or duration of breastfeeding between tea- workers and housewives, indicating that working mothers probably adjusted their time to breastfeed their infants before going, or after coming back, from work. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 18:630-638, 2006. ' 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

To investigate whether children's nutritional status, especially the extent of wasting [acute malnutrition as measured by weight-for-height Z (WHZ) score] is associated with arsenic contamination of drinking water, a survey was carried out in two discrete rural areas located less than 30 km southeast and northeast of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh. 761 children between 7 and 14 years of age were randomly selected, one child per household. The arsenic concentration in the tube well water used by each child and the prevalence and intensity of infection of three geo-helminths [Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and hookworm (Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus)] were determined. Each child had their height and weight measured and WHZ score determined using the World Health Organization (WHO) reference values. Basic socio-demographic data and knowledge of arsenic poisoning were collected using a questionnaire. 62.2% of the households studied were using well water with arsenic concentrations above the 0.01 mg/L WHO guideline (i.e. arsenic-contaminated households). The mean WHZ score of all the 761 children was -0.843 (sd 1.227) but children living in contaminated households were significantly more wasted than children living in noncontaminated households (mean difference = -0.361, p 0.001). When the effects of the differences in socio-economic status and prevalence of geo-helminths were also taken into account, the difference in means remained highly significant (-0.330, p = 0.006). This study suggests that arsenic contamination has a negative impact on children's acute nutritional status.

The earliest studies of human biological factors in migration in which a clear research design was employed date back to the early 20th century in the United States. Maurice Fishberg's study of Jewish migrants, published in 1905, antedated the classic study of Franz Boas initiated in 1908. There have been two main approaches. The first approach examined the impact of migration in relation to changing environment and the importance of environmental plasticity. For example, Fishberg reported that migrants had offspring different in stature from themselves and with differences thought to be due to improvements in the environment, although some selection of genetically determined traits was suggested. Subsequently, a number of research designs have been used, ranging from Boas's simple design of sedente (nonmigrant) adults and children compared with first- and second-generation migrants; Shapiro's extension of this study in Japanese migrants to Hawai'i; Goldstein's four-fold comparison of Mexican sedentes and their offspring in Mexico, and migrants to the USA and their offspring in the USA; and Lasker's extension of Goldstein's Mexican study by including comparison of sedentes with returning emigrants. More sophisticated designs were used by Harrison and Baker in examining altitude effects and changes in subsistence and lifestyle during the 1960s through to the 1980s. The second approach has focused on the effect of migration on gene flow. For example, the clinal variation of ABO blood groups in Europe and Australia is generally purported to result from past migration, although increasing random migration for blood groups is likely to eliminate clinal variation. Migration has usually been considered from a spatial (geographic) perspective, but more recent studies have also investigated the impact of social or occupational movement (social mobility) alone, or in combination with geographic migration, and tested whether such movements are selective or random for a number of biological traits.

Growth faltering has been well documented in children from Papua New Guinea, although there is evidence that broad processes of modernization, such as cash cropping, have resulted in increased body size. It is not clear, however, what household socioeconomic factors may be associated with larger body size in populations undergoing early stages of modernization. This cross-sectional study examined the nutritional status of children between birth and 5 years of age living near Kanabea, Papua New Guinea, a relatively remote outpost in the highland fringe experiencing a limited cash economy. Weight and height were measured on 260 children from 190 households. The mean z-scores of -2.26 +/- 1.50 (SD) for height-for-age, -2.43 +/- 1.25 for weight-for-age, and -1.34 +/- 1.49 for weight-for-height are suggestive of both acute and chronic malnutrition. Using a cut-off value ofor = -2SD, 68.8% of the children were stunted and/or wasted. These values are similar to those from a 1992-93 survey in the district, revealing that malnutrition remains a problem in the area. In this largely traditional horticultural group, educated mothers and mothers who spoke pidgin and/or English in addition to the local language had children with better z-scores.

1. Mitochondrial DNA in ancient and modern humans E. Hagelberg 2. Digital DNA typing of human paternal lineages M. A. Jobling, N. Bouzekri, N. Fretwell, G. A. Dover and A. J. Jeffreys 3. Minisatellites as tools for population genetic analysis J. Flint, J. Bond, R. M. Harding and J. B. Clegg 4. DNA fingerprinting: development of a technology and its application to the study of human populations A. P. Ryskov, M. I. Prosnyak, N. S. Kupriyanova, E. K. Khusnutdinova, I. M. Khidiatova, V.V. Kalnin, O.V. Kalnina, K. B. Bulkayeva and S. A. Limborska 5. Kinship, breeding and matching probabilities N. E. Morton and J. Teague 6. Using the coalescent to interpret gene trees R. M. Harding 7. Some attempts at measuring natural selection by malaria A. V. S. Hill 8. AIDA: geographical patterns of DNA diversity investigated by autocorrelation statistics G. Barbujani and G. Bertorelle 9. Mitochondrial DNA sequences in Europe: an insight into population history J. Betranpetit, F. Calafell, D. Comas, A. Perez-Lezaun and E. Mateu 10. Palaeolithic and neolithic contributions to the European mitochondrial gene pool B. Sykes, H. Corte-Real and M. Richards 11. The molecular diversity of the Niokholo Mandenkalu from Eastern Senegal: and insight into West Africa genetic theory L. Excoffier, E. S . Poloni, S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, O. Semino, and A. Langaney 12. The peopling of Madagascar H. Soodyall, T. Jenkins, R. Hewitt, A. Krause, M. Stoneking 13. Molecular perspectives on the colonisation of the Pacific J. J. Martinson 14. Population ancestry on Tristan da Cunha - the evidence of the individual D. F. Roberts and H. Soodyall 15. Linguistic divergence and genetic evolution: molecular perspectives from the New World R. H. Ward 16. Allelic sequence diversity at the human b-globulin locus S. M. Fullerton 17. A nuclear perspective on human evolution K. K. Kidd and J. R. Kidd 18. Contrasting gene trees and population trees of the evolution of modern humans N. Saitou 19. Methods and models for understanding human diversity H. C. Harpending, J. H. Relethford and S. T. Sherry Index.

Foreword G. A. Harrison Introduction B. Bogin and C. G. N. Mascie-Taylor 1. The pervasiveness of plasticity D. F. Roberts 2. Plasticity in early development D. J. Pritchard 3. Plasticity in the growth of Mayan refugee children living in the United States B. Bogin 4. The place of plasticity in the study of the secular trend for male stature J. L. Boldsen 5. Plasticity, growth and energy balance S. J. Ulijaszek 6. The study of migrants as a strategy for understanding human biological plasticity G. W. Lasker 7. Human migration: effects on people, effects on populations G. Coleman 8. The use of surnames in the study of human variation and plasticity John H. Relethford 9. A biological anthropological approach to measuring societal stress of parasitic disease - a case study of Schistosomiasis C. G. N. Mascie-Taylor and G. E. H. Mohamed 10. Biological adaptability, plasticity and disease: patterns in modernising societies R. M. Garruto 11. Human biological adaptability with special emphasis on plasticity: history, development and problems for future research L. M. Schell Index.

The shift from acute infectious and deficiency diseases to chronic noncommunicable diseases is not a simple transition but a complex and dynamic epidemiological process, with some diseases disappearing and others appearing or reemerging. The unabated pandemic of childhood and adulthood obesity and concomitant comorbidities are affecting both rich and poor nations, while infectious diseases remain an important public health problem, particularly in developing countries. More attention should be given to the high burden of disease associated with soil-transmitted helminths and schistosomiasis, which until recently was not considered a priority even though regular drug treatment is obtainable at relatively little cost. In developing countries, the pressing requirement is to provide an accessible and good quality health-care system, whereas industrialized countries have a major need for greater public health education and the promotion of healthy life-styles.

Gabriel died on Tuesday 27 August 2002 in his 91st year. He had been a very committed member of the Editorial Board since January 1991 and he continued to review papers for the Journal with the same degree of impartiality and care until a week before he died.

Background Multiple micronutrient deficiencies, in particular iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) is a severe public health problem in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR). Because of the practical difficulties encountered in improving the nutritional adequacy of traditional complementary foods and the limitations associated with the use of liquid iron supplementation for the treatment and prevention of IDA in infants and young children, recently, home-fortification with multivitamins and minerals sprinkles was recommended. This study aims to compare the effect of twice weekly versus daily supplementation with multivitamins and minerals powder (MMP) on anaemia prevalence, haemoglobin concentration, and growth in infants and young children in a rural community in Lao PDR. Methods A randomized trial was conducted in six rural communities. Children aged 6 to 52 months (n = 336) were randomly assigned to a control group (n = 110) or to one of two intervention groups receiving either two sachets per week (n = 115) or a daily sachet (n = 111) of MMP for 24 weeks; 331 children completed the study. A finger prick of blood was taken at baseline, at week 12, and again at week 24 to determine haemoglobin concentration. Anthropometric measurements were taken every 4 weeks. The McNemar test was used to assess within group differences at three time points in the study subjects with anaemia and one-way ANOVA was used to assess changes in mean haemoglobin concentration in the treatment groups. Results MMP supplementation resulted in significant improvements in haemoglobin concentration and in the reduction of anaemia prevalence in the two treatment groups compared with the control group (p, Nutrition Journal, 10, 129; 2011