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The metazoan mitogenomes usually display conserved gene arrangement while thrips are known for their extensive gene rearrangement, and duplication of the control region.We sequenced complete mitogenomes of eight species of thrips to determine the gene arrangement, phylogeny and divergence time estimation. All contain 37 genes and one control region, (CR) except four species with two CRs. Duplicated tRNAs were detected in Mycterothrips nilgiriensis and Thrips florum. nad4-nad4L were not found adjacent to each other in Phibalothrips peringueyi and Plicothrips apicalis. Both Bayesian and likelihood phylogenetic analyses of thrips mitogenomes supported the monophyly of two suborders (Terebrantia and Tubulifera) and the two largest families (Phlaeothripidae and Thripidae). Out of seven earlier proposed ancestral gene blocks, six are conserved in Panchaetothripinae, three in Thripinae and two in Phlaeothripidae. Additionally, eight Thrips Gene Blocks were identified, of which, three conserved in Tubulifera, four in Terebrantia, and one only in Aeolothripidae. Forty-two gene boundaries (15 from previous study + 27 new) were identified. The molecular divergence time is estimated for the order Thysanoptera and suggested that these insects may have been diversified from hemipterans in the late Permian period. The most recent ancestors belong to family Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae, which were diversified in upper Cretaceous period and showed higher rates of rearrangement from the ancestral gene order.The current study is the first largest effort to provide the new insights into the mitogenomic features, gene arrangement, phylogeny and divergence time estimation of thrips belonging to the order Thysanoptera.

A new technique for the satellite remote sensing of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere via the absorption of short-wave infrared laser signals transmitted between counter-rotating satellites in low Earth orbit has recently been proposed; this would enable the acquisition of a long-term, stable, global set of altitude-resolved concentration measurements. We present the first ground-based experimental demonstration of this new infrared-laser occultation method, in which the atmospheric absorption of CO2 near 2.1 μm was measured over a ~144 km path length between two peaks in the Canary Islands (at an altitude of ~2.4 km), using relatively low power diode lasers (~4 to 10 mW). The retrieved CO2 volume mixing ratio of 400 ppm (±15 ppm) is consistent within experimental uncertainty with simultaneously recorded in situ validation measurements. We conclude that the new method has a sound basis for monitoring CO2 in the free atmosphere; other greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour can be monitored in the same way.

Within protected areas, biodiversity loss is often a consequence of illegal resource use. Understanding the patterns and extent of illegal activities is therefore essential for effective law enforcement and prevention of biodiversity declines. We used extensive data, commonly collected by ranger patrols in many protected areas, and Bayesian hierarchical models to identify drivers, trends, and distribution of multiple illegal activities within the Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area (QECA), Uganda. Encroachment (e.g., by pastoralists with cattle) and poaching of noncommercial animals (e.g., snaring bushmeat) were the most prevalent illegal activities within the QECA. Illegal activities occurred in different areas of the QECA. Poaching of noncommercial animals was most widely distributed within the national park. Overall, ecological covariates, although significant, were not useful predictors for occurrence of illegal activities. Instead, the location of illegal activities in previous years was more important. There were significant increases in encroachment and noncommercial plant harvesting (nontimber products) during the study period (1999-2012). We also found significant spatiotemporal variation in the occurrence of all activities. Our results show the need to explicitly model ranger patrol effort to reduce biases from existing uncorrected or capture per unit effort analyses. Prioritization of ranger patrol strategies is needed to target illegal activities; these strategies are determined by protected area managers, and therefore changes at a site-level can be implemented quickly. These strategies should also be informed by the location of past occurrences of illegal activity: the most useful predictor of future events. However, because spatial and temporal changes in illegal activities occurred, regular patrols throughout the protected area, even in areas of low occurrence, are also required.

Seasonal variation in the accumulation and partitioning of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium was determined in both the above-ground and below-ground dry matter of the potential energy crops Miscanthus × giganteus and Spartina cynosuroides. It is desirable from both economic and environmental perspectives that such crops should exhibit a high nutrient use efficiency and minimal nutrient losses to the environment. The N, P and K concentrations in the above-ground dry matter, at final harvest, were 5.0, 0.6 and 12.0 mg g−1 respectively in M. × giganteus and 3.0, 0.4 and 1.0 mg g−1 in S. cynosuroides. Both species exhibited the high N-use efficiency expected of C4 plants. Nitrate leaching was negligible. At the end of the growing season, nutrients were translocated to the rhizomes and, in the case of M. × giganteus, recycled to the soil in shed leaves. Consequently the nutrient content of the crop offtake was low. It was calculated that the N, P and K requirements of a M. × giganteus crop producing an above-ground harvest of 1.5 kg m−2 dry matter would be 9.2, 1.3 and 20.4 g m−2 respectively. The corresponding nutrient requirements for S. cynosuroides would be 7.5, 1.7 and 8.8 g m−2. Except for the K requirement of M. × giganteus, the N, P and K demands of both species were less than those of typical graminaceous crops, including maize.

Previous studies have shown that both photoinhibition and low temperature impairment of leaf development occur in C 4 species growing in temperate climates. These result in reductions in the maximum quantum efficiency ( ?) and the light-saturated rate of CO 2 uptake (A sat ). The perennial C 4 -grass Miscanthus x giganteus has been shown to attain high productivity in northern Europe. This study examines and analyses the seasonal variation in photosynthetic gas exchange of M. x giganteus grown in southern England. Although the crop was exposed to chilling temperatures at the start of the season neither A sat nor ? were impaired, when assessed at a measurement temperature of 24°C. Between May and July the mean values of A sat and ? were 34 μmol m -2 s -1 and 0.067, respectively, declining to 20 μmol m -2 s -1 and 0.045 in October. In the field, on clear days between May and July, the typical midday rates of CO 2 uptake ranged between 20-27 μmol m -2 s -1 , although in late-June a peak mean value of 35 μmol m -2 s -1 was attained. The study shows that under the cool temperate conditions of southern England, M. x giganteus, unlike all C 4 species previously examined, is able to realize the photosynthetic potential of the C 4 process without suffering any apparent low temperature impairment, except possibly at the very end of the growing season.

Although C4 plants are considered to have higher conversion efficiency and productivity than C3, plants, this advantage may not be realized under sub-optimal conditions. Two perennial C4 rhizomatous grasses of cool temperate origin, Miscanthus × giganteus and Spartina cyno-suroides, have been suggested as potential fuel crops for north-western Europe. The conversion efficiencies of these species were examined for 2 years in fertilized, irrigated, replicated plots in south-eastern England. In the second year, the energy conversion efficiencies for shoot and total biomass production were 0.040 and 0.051, respectively, for S. cynosuroides, with significantly higher values of 0.060 and 0.078, respectively, for M. × giganteus. The M. × giganteus crop attained shoot productivity of 2.87 kg m−2 between April and September, exceeding the highest values typically obtained with intensively managed C3, crops. Canopy development was early, and high interception and conversion efficiencies were maintained over most of the growing season. This study provides the evidence that the superior potential light conversion efficiencies associated with C4 photosynthesis can be realized under cool temperate conditions and that such climatic conditions do not Inherently impair the C4 process.

"The purpose of this study is to track and contrast the patterns of local concentration and deconcentration in nonmetropolitan America between 1950 and 1996. We consider the growth of places by initial size as well as the growth of population living in the countryside or in unincorporated hamlets.... To determine how widespread and consistent the trends are, we compare patterns of growth by nearness to metropolitan areas, and by region of the country. We also examine differences among a subset of nonmetropolitan places distinguished by the primary socioeconomic character of their county. Using a detailed data file from the 1990 census, we are able to give some consideration to commuting."

Combining the wealth of epidemiological, metabolic and recent mechanistic data, it would appear biologically plausible that HRT, either oestrogen alone or in combination with progestogen, is cardioprotective. Further research is required, as information is lacking on cardiovascular effects of HRT instigated at an older age. There is a need to identify cardiovascular benefit, indirect and/or direct, of combined oestrogen/progestogen therapy using randomized trials. The various progestogen types and doses also need to be investigated. Studies are also required to investigate the effect of HRT use in higher risk patients with established CVD. There is scant information on the effect of HRT on blood pressure of patients with hypertension. Cardiovascular risk factor profiles and incidence surveys need to be conducted in developing countries to characterize their female population and to identify the prevalence of CVD; this needs to be undertaken before widespread recommendations on CVD prevention and the role of HRT can be made. If HRT is to be used effectively in the future treatment of heart disease in women these questions need to be addressed. At present HRT is indicated for the relief of menopausal symptoms and the prevention of osteoporosis. In women without these indications, ORT may be recommended in those who have had a premature menopause, and possibly in those who have established CHD or who are at high risk of developing CHD. It is too early to suggest a blanket recommendation for the use of HRT in the treatment of the symptoms of women with established CVD, but HRT after the menopause may at least be safely used in the secondary prevention of CHD.

This paper explains the importance of standard fibre-optic LANs, and gives an overview of the state of development of the main emerging fibre-optic LAN standards. Fibre-optic enhancements to 802·3, 802·4 and 802·5 are discussed, as well as FDDI and FDDI-2. A brief mention is made of 802·6 and SONET, which are not LANs but are relevant to the discussion. The need for a rational cabling infrastructure is mentioned, as is the need for conformance tests. Some of the practical reasons why it makes sense to have fibre available at the end stations are discussed.

This is a revised version of the paper presented at the 1979 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America (see Population Index 45(3):390, July 1979. The authors present a study of inter-county commuting patterns of migrants and nonmigrants living in nonmetropolitan areas of the United States