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Biofuels have become the world's greatest, safest, cleanest and cheapest alternative to fossil fuels. Transport sector continues to receive influx of cars and general machinery every year worldwide leading to an overwhelming use of fossil fuel. The fossil fuel sources are gradually becoming depleted. Sustainable bioethanol recovered from inexhaustible sources are constantly been used to replace fossil fuels in the transport sector. The shea nut pulp (SNP) is a cheap source of carbon, nitrogen and calcium for the production of bioethanol. This study has employed the shea nut pulp as substrate, Saccharomyces cerevisiae-the Baker's Yeast strain-as the fermentation microbe, Alpha Amylase enzyme for hydrolysis of the substrate and supported the simultaneous fermentation process with nutrient supplements. The data were subjected to statistical analysis. Approximately 37.8 and 40.0 g/L of ethanol after 16 and 20 h, were produced from without-a-amylase and with-a-amylase treatments, respectively. Fermentation efficiencies of 58.6 and 65.0 % were observed ethanol yields for without-a-amylase and with-a-amylase, respectively when compared to the theoretical yield. This research is useful in harnessing the potentials of the shea nut pulp as industrially relevant substrate for use independently or in combination with other substrates in microbial fermentation processes for ethanol production. An assessment of the fermentation process has revealed that the SNP is a good source of bioethanol going into the future. The research therefore recommends further work on scale-up of the bioethanol production process from the shea nut pulp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study evaluated the interleukin-6 (IL-6), interferon-gamma (INF-γ), and immunoglobulin Y (IgY) responses in Eimeria tenella-infected broiler chickens pre-administered with the methanol extracts of Ganoderma lucidum, Vernonia amygdalina leaves and Vitellaria paradoxa stem bark. Material and Methods: One hundred 1-day-old broiler chicks were obtained, brooded for two weeks, and then randomly divided into 10 groups (A1, B1, C1, D1, A2, B2, C2, D2, E, and F) of 10 birds each. From 14 to 20 days of age (doa), groups A1 and A2 were administered G. lucidum; B1 and B2 V. amygdalina; C1 and C2 V. paradoxa; D1 and D2 Amprolium (100 g/100 L drinking water; while no extract/medication was administered to groups E and F. At 21 doa, groups A2, B2, C2, D2, and E were challenged orally with 104 E. tenella sporulated oocysts. Blood was collected at 14, 21, and 28 doa in labeled plain tubes, and serum was harvested and assayed for IL-10, INF-γ, and IgY levels. Results: Results revealed no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the serum IL-10, INF-γ, and IgY levels in all groups of chickens at 14 and 21 doa. At 28 doa, serum IL-10 level was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in B2 and C2 compared to A2, D2, and E. The levels of INF-γ and IgY were not significantly (P > 0.05) higher in B2 and C2 than in A2, D2, and E. The prophylactic administration of G. lucidum, V. amygdalina leaf, and V. paradoxa stem bark methanolic extracts altered changes in the serum IL-10, INF-γ, and IgY levels induced by E. tenella challenge in the broiler chickens. Conclusion: The mechanisms involved in these cytokines and IgY responses as a result of the prophylactic administration of these extracts require further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to investigate the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using the aqueous extract of the Eragrostis tef (teff or annual bunch grass) and Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea Butter Tree) seeds extract and investigate their antimicrobial and anticancer activities. In order to synthesise the silver nanoparticles, aqueous extract of the plant was prepared and introduced into a 1mM silver nitrate solution. The synthesised AgNPs were characterised using various instrumental techniques including ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM). Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) for AgNPs using E. tef and V. paradoxa seeds extract was observed at 40 nm. The synthesised AgNPs of E. tef and V. paradoxa was found with diameter of 12.59- 34.60 nm, 29.05- 83.94 nm respectively. The antibacterial result against the experimental pathogens was found to range from 12-22 mm and from 13-19 mm using AgNPs of E. tef, V.paradoxa seed extracts respectively. In addition the result show that there was clear effect on Acinetobacter baumannii from hospital sewage isolates. Toxic effect of AgNPs against cancer cell were 77.12 (concentration of AgNPs was 75%) of E. tef and 77.23 (concentration of AgNPs was 50%) of V. paradoxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was aimed at assessing the natural regeneration of Vitellaria paradoxa at seedling stage in order to accentuate its sustainable plantation establishment. Two land-use types (cultivated and fallow lands) and five crown shapes (round, spindle, spherical, umbrella and intermediate) were evaluated for their effects on early growth of Vitellaria seedlings. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA at 5% level of significance. The results revealed that cultivated land had a higher mean value in height (19.29 cm), number of leaves (6.26) and leaf area (33.38 cm2). Land-use types and tree crown shape significantly influenced the level of carriage of the seeds by rodent pest animals with 2.6% seeds from the cultivated land while fallow land had 21.6%. For sustainable production of healthy seedlings, adequate land preparation and soil conditioning are very important for natural regeneration and early growth of the seedlings of V. paradoxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitellaria paradoxa is one of the most economically important trees in West Africa. Although being a key component of most sub-Sahara agroforestry systems, little information and argument exist regarding its biomass and carbon potential. Here, we developed biomass equations for V. paradoxa tree components in Sudanian savannas. A destructive sampling approach was applied, which was based on measuring stem, branch and foliage biomass of thirty individual trees selected from a wide spectrum of diameter at breast height (dbh) and tree height (h). Basal diameter (d20), dbh, h and crown diameter (cd) were measured and used as predictors in biomass equations. Carbon content was estimated using the ash method. Variance explained in biomass allometric equations ranged from 81 to 98%, and was lower for foliage than for branch and stem biomass models, suggesting that leaf allometries are less responsive to tree size than branch and stem allometries. Stem biomass was best predicted by d20, branch biomass by dbh, and leaf biomass by crown diameter. For aboveground biomass, adding height to dbh as compound variable (dbh2 × h) did not make any significant change, as compared with model based on dbh alone. However, adding crown diameter to dbh and height reduced the error by 15% and improved model fits. Carbon contents in V. paradoxa foliage, branch and stem were 55.29, 55.37 and 55.82%, respectively, and higher than reference value suggested by the IPCC. Established allometric equations can be used to accurately predict aboveground biomass of the species in the Sudanian savannas of West Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bilaterally symmetrical, feeding larval stage is an ancestral condition in echinoderms. However, many echinoderms have evolved abbreviated development and form a pentamerous juvenile without a feeding larva. Abbreviated development with a non-feeding vitellaria larva is found in five families of brittle stars, but very little is known about this type of development. In this study, the external anatomy, ciliary bands, neurons, and muscles were examined in the development of the brooded vitellaria larva of Ophioplocus esmarki. The external morphology throughout development shows typical vitellaria features, including morphogenetic movements to set up the vitellaria body plan, an anterior preoral lobe, a posterior lobe, transverse ciliary bands, and development of juvenile structures on the mid-ventral side. An early population of neurons forms at the base of the preoral lobe at the pre-vitellaria stage after the initial formation of the coelomic cavities. These early neurons may be homologous to the apical neurons that develop in echinoderms with feeding larval forms. Neurons form close to the ciliary bands, but the vitellaria larva lacks the tracts of neurons associated with the ciliary bands found in echinoderms with feeding larvae. Additional neurons form in association with the axial complex and persist into the juvenile stage. Juvenile nerves and muscles form with pentamerous symmetry in the late vitellaria stage in a manner similar to their development within the late ophiopluteus larva. Even though O. esmarki is a brooding brittle star, its developmental sequence retains the general vitellaria shape and structure; however, the vitellaria larvae are unable to swim in the water column. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry parklands, characterized by scattered trees growing within cultivated crop fields, are the most widespread agricultural system in semi-arid West Africa. Agroforestry trees offer many ecological and socioeconomic benefits, such as added income, food, and medicine. They are currently under threat in this region due to recent changes in agricultural and land use practices. For example, a reduction in traditional fallow rotation periods has led to decreased regeneration of a common agroforestry tree, shea (Vitellaria paradoxa), which has been an important economic resource for women. The aims of this study were to determine beneficial spatial distributions of shea to maintain high yields of staple crops and to better understand male and female farmer perceptions of shea maintenance. We compared maize (Zea mays) vegetative growth, grain yield, soil moisture, and light availability associated with individual shea trees and clumps of trees on five farms in Ghanaian agroforestry parklands. We also interviewed local farmers to better understand their management perspectives. Maize vegetative growth increased with light availability, but was not limited by soil moisture. Conversely and contrary to farmer perceptions, grain yield was not influenced by light availability, but increased with increasing soil moisture. Also contrary to common beliefs of local farmers, grain yield was greater under clumps of shea compared to scattered distributions of individual trees. We therefore recommend the maintenance of clumped distributions of shea, as they provide beneficial microclimates for staple crops, and could assist in improving the productivity of shea products that are considered the domain of women farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focused on leaf and root density dynamics of the most dominant tree species (Vitellaria paradoxa) of West African savannas in two land use types (farmed land and forest). Ten trees located at least 100 m from each other were selected, with five trees each located in the field and in the forest. Five of the trees were of small-diameter [two in the fields (diameter at breast height or DBH 20.1-20.7 cm) and three in the forest (DBH 7.0-8.0-10.8 cm)] and five others were of large-diameter [three in the fields (DBH 38.2-81.8-81.9 cm) and two in the forest (DBH 20.1-20.7 cm)]. One near-vertical rhizotron was installed under each tree to evaluate root density while canopy openness, diffuse and directly transmitted light were monitored by taking hemispheric photograph monthly. After a two-year period of monitoring, the results revealed a strong seasonality in root density with peak root density observed during the rainy season in August and the lowest production during the dry season in April. Significant lowest canopy openness was observed from August to September while the highest occurred from March to May, which was found to be synchronous with fine root dynamics. The light interception followed the same trends as the leaf production. Furthermore, both mature and young trees showed significant higher root density in the fields compared to the forest while the mean values of all the parameters of canopy openness and light transmittance were higher in the forest than the fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progressively changing the intensity of cultivation and the reduced fallow periods has led to insufficient regeneration in the parkland of Vitellaria paradoxa which is included in the list of fruit tree species constituting African forest genetic resource priorities for in-situ conservation. However, the overall influence of heavy shading has led to the production of a tree with little height growth and a poorly developed crown. Germination and early growth studies were carried out in the nursery of the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN), Ibadan. Seeds of V. paradoxa were collected from three main agro-ecological zones in the Nigeria humid savanna where the species is endemic: Seedlings at two--leaf stage were prickled into medium sized polythene pots (16x14x12 cm3 ) filled with nursery topsoil and were subjected to three different light intensities (100%, 75% and 50%) lux meters. Growth variables assessed included seedling height, stem collar diameter, leaf production and leaf area, all measured at monthly intervals for six months, shoot and root biomass, used to estimate the net assimilation rate (NAR) and relative growth rate (RGR). The data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference (LSD) used to separate the means at P≤0.05. Seedlings subjected to 100% light intensity consistently showed better growth in all the parameters while seedlings exposed to 75% and below had poor performance. Artificial regeneration of V. paradoxa which is a light demanding species of open sites and parkland savanna will according to the findings of this work require clearance or spacing out of such field of tree species that have tendency of forming canopies over Vitellaria paradoxa.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The morphological responses of seedlings of eight African provenances of Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree or Karité) to imposed draught stress were compared under nursery experimental conditions. The potted seedlings were subjected to three different watering regimes (87 days after sowing): no water stress (100% of the field capacity, C), moderate water stress (75% of C) and severe water stress (50% of C). Before the application of the stress, we observed genotypical differences in the morphological variables at the scale of leaves and of above-ground parts. The six-month water stress affected aerial growth: all provenances responded to drought by down-regulating growth (in height and in diameter), leaf number and area. Katawki provenance of Uganda performed relatively poorly, possibly of it being a nilotica subspecies, contrary to the others (paradoxa subspecies). There was a lack of correlation between climate of seeds origin, seed characteristics, seeds germination and survival rate of seedlings. The study confirmed the importance of leaf area in the vigor of the initial growth in this species. Thus, Tamale and Karaba provenances performed better than other West African provenances due to their larger leaf area, which was found to be a determining factor of relative growth in height at the seedling stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea ( Vitellaria paradoxa) is an important fruit tree in West African parklands, and its successful pollination is a requirement for fruit production. Size-based pollinator exclusion experiments combined with visual observations showed that presence of honey bees ( Apis mellifera jemenitica) was important for pollination and thereby the production of fruits and seeds. Smaller insects, mainly species of stingless bees ( Hypotrigona spp. and Liotrigona cf. bottegoi) and solitary bees ( Compsomelissa borneri) could partly compensate pollination in absence of honey bees, but fertilisation and fruit yield was reduced. A positive correlation between fertilisation percentage and number of honey bee colonies within radii of 900 and 1000 m was observed. The percentage of fertilisation and number of mature fruits per fascicle were higher in trees with colonies of stingless bees in the trunk when honey bees were excluded by bagging. We conclude that local beekeeping with honey bees and stingless bees is likely to have a positive influence on fruit production of shea trees in the farmed West African parklands, which speaks in favour of a pollinator friendly environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitellaria paradoxa (Gaertn C. F.), or shea tree, remains one of the most valuable trees for farmers in the Atacora district of northern Benin, where rural communities depend on shea products for both food and income. To optimize productivity and management of shea agroforestry systems, or "parklands," accurate and up-to-date data are needed. For this purpose, we monitored120 fruiting shea trees for two years under three land-use scenarios and different soil groups in Atacora, coupled with a farm household survey to elicit information on decision making and management practices. To examine the local pattern of shea tree productivity and relationships between morphological factors and yields, we used a randomized branch sampling method and applied a regression analysis to build a shea yield model based on dendrometric, soil and land-use variables. We also compared potential shea yields based on farm household socio-economic characteristics and management practices derived from the survey data. Soil and land-use variables were the most important determinants of shea fruit yield. In terms of land use, shea trees growing on farmland plots exhibited the highest yields (i.e., fruit quantity and mass) while trees growing on Lixisols performed better than those of the other soil group. Contrary to our expectations, dendrometric parameters had weak relationships with fruit yield regardless of land-use and soil group. There is an inter-annual variability in fruit yield in both soil groups and land-use type. In addition to observed inter-annual yield variability, there was a high degree of variability in production among individual shea trees. Furthermore, household socioeconomic characteristics such as road accessibility, landholding size, and gross annual income influence shea fruit yield. The use of fallow areas is an important land management practice in the study area that influences both conservation and shea yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combining antibiotics with resistance reversing agents is a key strategy to overcome bacterial resistance. Upon screening antimicrobial activities of plants used in traditional medicine, we found that a leaf dichloromethane extract from the shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) had antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) with further evidence of synergy when combined with β-lactams. Using HPLC-MS, we identified ursolic (UA) and oleanolic acids (OA) in leaves and twigs of this species, and quantified them by HPLC-UV as the major constituents in leaf extracts (21% and 6% respectively). Both pure triterpenic acids showed antimicrobial activity against reference and clinical strains of MRSA, with MICs ranging from 8-16 mg/L for UA to 32-128 mg/L for OA. They were highly synergistic with β-lactams (ampicillin and oxacillin) at subMIC concentrations. Reversion of MRSA phenotype was attributed to their capacity to delocalize PBP2 from the septal division site, as observed by fluorescence microscopy, and to disturb thereby peptidoglycan synthesis. Moreover, both compounds also inhibited β-lactamases activity of living bacteria (as assessed by inhibition of nitrocefin hydrolysis), but not in bacterial lysates, suggesting an indirect mechanism for this inhibition. In a murine model of subcutaneous MRSA infection, local administration of UA was synergistic with nafcillin to reduce lesion size and inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β) production. Thus, these data highlight the potential interest of triterpenic acids as resistance reversing agents in combination with β-lactams against MRSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conservation status of Vitellaria paradoxa in Kwara state was studied. The frequency ranged from 20% at Offa and Ilofa to100% at Jebba and Kaiama, as the shea tree occurred twice in the ten sampling points at Offa and Ilofa, but occurred in all sampled sites at Jebba and Kaiama. The highest tree mean density of 34 trees/ha was noted at Kaiama and the lowest at Offa 4 trees/ha. The overall mean densities of the species was 13.33 trees/ha. These show that Vitellaria paradoxa trees were more conserved towards the Northern part of the state than the Southern part. The majority of the trees were between (21-30 cm) diameter class, which indicated that they were saplings and very few were around (<10 cm) diameter class. The results showed low population of seedlings in the state, especially at the Northern part of the state. This might be due to trees' removal for farming activities, uncontrolled incessant bush burning and trampling by grazing live stocks in the areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lipid-based nutrient supplements (LNS) are used to prevent and treat moderate and severe acute malnutrition, a leading cause of mortality in children-under-five. The physical and chemical changes of two new LNS products were evaluated before and after accelerated shelf life testing (ASLT) according to protocols suggested by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and Doctors without Borders and compared against USAID's A-20 paste as a control. LNS formulas containing Shea butter from the Shea nut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), a common fat source in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, with and without flax-seed oil, as a source of omega-3 fatty acids, were developed. LNS formulas were batched (0.8 kg) in a wet grinder, sealed under nitrogen in three-layer mini-pouches (20 g), and underwent ASLT at 40 ± 2 °C for six months with sampling every eight weeks. At each time point, water activity, moisture, peroxide value, oil separation, vitamin C content, and hardness were evaluated. Results showed comparable stability among all formulas with an increase in Aw (p < 0.05) but no change in vitamin C, oil separation, or peroxide value. Addition of Shea butter improved the LNS's hardness, which remained stable over time. Modifying fat profile in LNS can improve its texture and essential fatty acid content without affecting its storage stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses an original integrated theoretical framework to reveal the mechanisms behind socio-economic differentiation in the changing patterns of access to shea in western Burkina Faso, in the context of globalization of the shea nut trade and internal migrations from both the Mossi Plateau and the Sahelian zone. Based on more than 200 interviews, we unravel the complex dynamic mechanisms of changes in access to shea. We show that negotiations result in reduced access to shea for late comers as well as for people with a limited number of shea trees in their fields, since areas where shea is managed as a common-pool resource are becoming less accessible. However, we also demonstrate that late comers are not powerless in the face of first comers' claims to shea. Our results should help policy-makers and project-based activities concerning shea to focus more on issues related to access to this resource. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schistosoma mansoni depends upon the purine salvage pathway to obtain purine nucleotides; therefore, enzymes from this pathway are essential for parasite survival. Here, we focused on the adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) enzyme, which catalyzes the condensation reaction between adenine and PRPP (5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate) to produce AMP and PPi. Kinetic experiments using the heterologously expressed protein of one APRT isoform from S. mansoni indicate that it is catalytically active, and whole-mount in situ hybridization studies indicate that the transcripts of this protein are concentrated in the posterior region of the ovary and vitellaria of female adult worms. Moreover, a phylogenetic analysis has shown that APRT exists in multiple copies originating from gene duplications at the base of the Schistosoma genus. Other enzymes from the purine and pyrimidine salvage pathways have also been found to present multiple copies in schistosomes, suggesting that evolutionary pressure to diversify these genes’ families may be related to a specialized role in parasite reproduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to metals and other trace elements negatively affects infection dynamics of monogeneans, including diplozoids, but, physiological mechanisms linked to exposure have yet to be documented. In this study sequestration of trace elements and reactive oxygen intermediate production in the monogenean, Paradiplozoon ichthyoxanthon, was demonstrated. During dissection of host fish, Labeobarbus aeneus, the gills were excised and assessed for P. ichthyoxanthon, which were removed and frozen for fluorescence microscopy or fixed for transmission electron microscopy. Trace elements were sequestered in the vitellaria and sclerites in P. ichthyoxanthon, and the presence of reactive oxygen intermediates was observed predominantly in the tegument of the parasite. Trace elements and metals identified and ranked according to weight percentages (wt%) in the vitellaria were Cu > C > Au > O > Cr > Fe > Si while for the sclerites C > Cu > O > Au > Fe > Cr > Si were identified. For most element detected, readings were higher in the vitellaria than the sclerites, except for C and O which were higher in sclerites. Specifically for metals, all levels detected in the vitellaria were greater than in sclerites. Based on the proportion of trace elements present in the vitellaria and sclerites it appears that most trace elements including metals were sequestered in the vitellaria. The results of reactive oxygen intermediate production in the tegument of the parasite suggests either trace element accumulation takes place across the tegument or results from the action of the host’s immune response on the parasite. The results serve as the first demonstration of trace element sequestration and reactive oxygen intermediates in a freshwater monogenean parasite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) butter is an important internationally recognised economic commodity because of its food and medicinal potentials. However, access to finance for small-scale forest enterprises such as shea butter production and marketing remains a fundamental problem, which affects the growth and performance of these enterprises. This study, therefore, assessed the financing schemes and delivery mechanisms available for the production and marketing of the product in Tamale, Northern Region of Ghana. It also identified the financial structures available to shea butter producers, including constraints of the financial delivery mechanisms. Using a social survey, the study purposively selected and interviewed 83 women who engaged in shea butter processing. Of these, 86% were full-time processors of shea butter and 14% were involved in other businesses, such as petty trading, groundnut and rice processing. The study revealed low patronage of financial services as only 18% of the respondents took loans. A high proportion (82%) of the respondents were under contract financing with companies that purchased the shea butter. This financing arrangement made it difficult for the women to expand their activities as they usually were unable to negotiate and receive competitive prices for their shea butter. Non-governmental organisations and some financial organisations were involved in providing technical support services to the producers. However, there was an absence of continuous support services in credit management. The high illiteracy rate (97%) of shea butter producers made it challenging for the women to access formal training programmes to make them aware of opportunities that exist for financing their business. There is the need for targeted collaboration among stakeholders to improve existing financing schemes. In the long term, there should be policies to standardise the activities of the shea butter industry to improve access to credit, which could lead to the sustainable growth of these enterprises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shea butter, derived from the African shea tree, has acquired a pivotal position in global agro-food and cosmetics industries. In Burkina Faso, public and private actors as well as civil society are converging upon the product to boost the incomes of rural female producers. As a result of these trends, the shea value chain is increasingly segmented; shea nuts are sold in a low-return, conventional market and simultaneously enter an alternative, high-value niche market. In the latter strand of the value chain, some producers are improving their prospects by forming an association. Tracing relationships across the two strands, we demonstrate how ‘horizontal’ relations based on gender, ethnicity, age and geography contribute to shaping participation and benefit capture in the shea value chain. We argue that processes of social inclusion and exclusion operate in parallel, as differentiated actors both cooperate and compete to secure their place within the chain. While collective organizing brings positive social and economic benefits, we show that producers’ associations need not be empowering for all women. The significance of collective enterprises, but also their drawbacks must be considered when valorising pathways to women's empowerment. Our study reinforces calls for greater integration of horizontal elements in value chain analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schistosomes cause significant morbidity and mortality in millions of the world’s poorest people. While parasite egg-induced inflammation is the primary driver of host pathology, relatively little is known at the molecular level about the organ systems that participate in schistosome egg production (i.e., testes, ovaries and vitellaria). Here we use transcriptional profiling and in situ hybridization to characterise the vitellarium of Schistosoma mansoni . We uncovered several previously uncharacterised vitellaria-specific factors and defined molecular markers for various stages in the vitellocyte differentiation process. These data provide the framework for future in-depth molecular studies exploring the biology of this important parasite organ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to evaluate the growth response of three leafy vegetables (Celosia argentea, Amaranthus cruentus and Amaranthus hypochodriacus) to the leaf extract of Vitellaria paradoxa. Forty-five (45) experimental plastic containers were filled with 5 kg of loamy soil each and randomly allocated to the following regimes: control, 20 g, 40 g, 60 g and 80 g of powdered leaves of V. paradoxa, in three (3) replicates for each test crop respectively. It was observed that the response of the three leafy vegetables, grown within different composition of V. paradoxa leaves, are concentration dependent with respect to the studied growth parameters (plant height, leaf number, leaf area, stem girth). This indicated that V. paradoxa has allelopathic potential on the studied vegetables and therefore it could be used for natural weed control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vitellaria paradoxa is a traditional medicinal plant of Cameroon. Several studies on this plant have focused on the cosmetic profile of its fruits. The present study focuses on the anti-inflammatory potency of stem barks extract of this plant. Objective: The objective was to evaluate the effect of methanolic extract of V. paradoxa (VPME) stem barks on inflammatory response in rats. Materials and Methods: Anti-inflammatory effects of VPME were evaluated in acute and chronic (28 days) inflammation induced in Wistar albino rats. The effects on hyperalgesia and locomotors activity were also quantified. The relative weight of lymphoid organs was obtained as well as some hematological parameters. Results: In the carrageenan-induced inflammation, VPME (75 mg/kg) exhibited a significant (66.67%) inhibition after 1 h. On the complete Freund's adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis, VPME showed a significant protective effect with 8.12% inflammation against 25.00% for the control group after 2 days of the treatment. The extract (75 and 150 mg/kg) significantly reduced the score of arthritis with a maximum obtained on day 19th of the experimentation. There was a significant increase in the reaction time of rats on the hot plate as well as the exploratory activities of the animals in the open field. This extract significantly prevented weight, hemoglobin and red blood cells losses, and spleen hypertrophy. A protective action against skin destruction and cartilage erosion was evident. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the extract revealed the presence of catechins. Conclusions: These findings suggested that V. paradoxa may contribute to the reduction of the inflammatory response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effectiveness of tree species as bioindicators/biomonitors depends on appropriate selection based on their tolerance and sensitivity to air pollution, which is usually evaluated by the air pollution tolerance index (APTI). Despite the importance of the APTI in screening tree species for biomonitoring, there are still limitations to its usefulness in green belt establishment/management. Therefore, this study combined the APTI and anticipated performance index (API) to evaluate the potential of some tree species commonly growing on the campus of the University of Ilorin, north-central Nigeria, for green belt development. The study revealed that the APTI alone is not adequate for determining the suitability of tree species for green belt development, although it can be employed to identify sensitive plants for biomonitoring. The combination of the APTI and API in this study is a practical approach to developing a sink for air pollution control. The API indicated that Vitellaria paradoxa (API = 4) is a good performer in green belt development, while Terminalia catappa, Acacia nilotica and Prosopis africana (API = 3) are moderate performers. The present study suggests that integration of both the plant tolerance and performance indices for selection of tree species is very useful for the development of a green belt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitellaria paradoxa (shea) parklands are one of the major features of the Sudanian savannah. Besides the parklands importance in terms of provision of ecosystem services, they play a major role in satisfying household subsistence needs. However, the shea trees on farms are under threat due to the increasing population growth, inappropriate agricultural practices and increasing effects of climate change. Thus, we examine the V. paradoxa population structure and its regeneration status in parklands under different land management regimes in four communes of Atacora department in Northern Benin. Dendrometric parameters were measured in five plots of 50 × 50 m in each commune and land management regime and the number of seedling and coppice were assessed. We applied Weibull theoretical model to compare measured and expected diameter classes' densities. The tallest and largest individuals were recorded in fields while old fallows had the maximum tree density and regeneration across sites. In over-all, the tree densities across sites as well as regeneration were low in fields and young fallows. We also found that the land management regime significantly influenced regeneration particularly the coppices. On the other hand, the distribution of diameter classes showed that shea agroforests was represented by small diameter classes implying a stable and regenerating population in 92 % of visited sites, irrespective of the land management regime. Thus, the state of regeneration in shea parklands appeals for an improvement in the management of juveniles, a guaranty of future stable population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Podocotyle bathyhelminthos n. sp. (Opecoelidae: Plagioporinae) is described from the cusk-eel, Luciobrotula corethromycter Cohen, 1964 (Ophidiiformes: Ophidiidae), collected at depths of 622-1,280 m in the northern Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea off Colombia. The new species is distinguished by possessing a combination of the following features: an elongate oval body shape, a sucker width ratio of 1:1.4-1.9, deeply lobed and irregularly-shaped testes, a cirrus-sac that extends just in to the hindbody, a trilobed ovary and vitellarium that extend to the ventral sucker level. Several unique features in P. bathyhelminthos n. sp. were not present in all, or almost all, recognized species of Podocotyle including a conspicuous deep cleft at the posterior end of the worm, a small transverse ridge on the ventral surface immediately anterior to the ventral sucker, uterine loops extending ventral to the caeca and, at times, lateral to the caeca, a thick-walled metraterm extending 1/3 to 1/2 the length of the cirrus-sac and P. bathyhelminthos n. sp. parasitizes a deep water piscine host. Podocotyle etheostomae Aliff, 1973 is declared a nomen nudum. A brief discussion of Podocotyle Dujardin, 1845 in deep waters is presented, and a gastropod, caridean shrimp and cusk-eel are hypothesized as hosts in the life cycle of P. bathyhelminthos n. sp. in the deep sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable potential for the shea industry (Vitellaria paradoxa) to contribute to the economic empowerment of women in the Sahel Region of sub-Saharan Africa. This article examines interventions in Ghana's Upper West Region at two different processing stages of the value chain, intended to facilitate women's participation in, and enhance the beneits accruing from, shea harvesting and processing. We use the responses of the nut pickers and butter processors to qualitative and quantitative ield research undertaken in 2010 to explore the constraints facing women's market participation. Results showed that mechanisms to link butter producers to markets and to sources of credit were key for the development of the shea value chain in a way that retains value locally and beneits rural producers. Complementary services also facilitated participation in the butter chains. For women to beneit, the ability to negotiate and inluence the terms of trade between producers and buyers is important. Such market initiatives and interventions must be considered in the context of time management of diverse livelihood strategies. Also, how inancial management and beneit sharing occur within households is sure to interact with the willingness of women to participate in new shea opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anti-microbial activity of essential oil extracted from Butyrospermum parkii seed against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus species, and Trichophyton species was conducted in Mubi, North-Eastern Nigeria. Antimicrobial screening protocol was carried out by agar dilution method. The result showed that the bioefficacy of the oil is close to that of the standard antibiotic drugs when compared; the oil inhibited the growth of C. albicans and Trichophyton spp close to that of the standard drug (Co-trimoxazole), while E. coli, S. aureus and Streptococcus spp showed resistivity activity. The oil is hereby recommended for its antimicrobial property for therapeutic purposes and can be used as an alternative medicine against C. albicans, E. coli, S aureus, Streptococcus spp and Trichophyton spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clinostomum complanatum is a digenetic trematode that causes yellow grub disease in some fish species and also shows zoonotic potential by sporadically infecting humans. In this study, progenetic metacercariae of C. complanatum were obtained from the fish Trichogaster fasciatus, and were aseptically placed in conjunctival incisions made in the superior and inferior fornices of the eye of rabbits, which served as the experimental hosts. Worms were harvested without necropsy of the host on days 4 and 8 post infection, to observe in vivo transformation of the progenetic metacercariae into ovigerous adult worms. The worms appeared to cause minimal damage to the host although they were tenaciously attached. In vivo maturation was evident by the development of the vitellaria, enlargement of gonads, the presence of a large number of shelled eggs in a distended uterus and ramifications of the intestinal caeca. Obtaining mature ovigerous worms without sacrificing the host clearly gives the rabbit eye model an advantage over those described previously. Due to the relative advantage of the short time required for maturation and the prolific egg production by C. complanatum, it is suggested that this host–parasite system could be used as an excellent model for classroom teaching of trematode biology and to investigate the cues involved in in vivo transformation and host–parasite interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Alloglossidium is described from the intestines of 2 madtom species ( Noturus leptacanthus and Noturus gyrinus) that were collected from the run of a small, unnamed spring system that drains into the Santa Fe River, Florida. Alloglossidium floridense n. sp. is morphologically very similar to other nonprecocious Alloglossidium spp. that use ictalurids as definitive hosts, but can be distinguished by a combination of its smaller overall size (length and width), large eggs in relation to its small body size, position of the vitellaria, ovary shape, and position of the ovary in relation to the cirrus sac. A comparison of nuclear rDNA sequences (spanning partial 18s, complete ITS1, 5.8s, ITS2, and partial 28s regions) showed that A. floridense n. sp. diverged by 0.70-3.17% from the other 4, nonprecocious species that infect ictalurids ( Alloglossidium corti, Alloglossidium fonti, Alloglossidium geminum, and Alloglossidium kenti). The new species of Alloglossidium, described herein, is the first of the genus to be reported from Florida and the first to be recorded from N. leptacanthus. In light of the subtle morphological differences among the nonprecocious species that infect ictalurids, we discuss how previous descriptions of species traits that are not supported with genetic data are difficult to interpret because of the possible past nonrecognition of distinct species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essential oils from the leaves and stem-bark of Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn. obtained by hydrodistillation were analyzed by GC/GC-MS. A total of 68 and 33 compounds representing 90.1% and 95.1% of the total oils were identified in the leaves and stem bark, respectively. The major constituent in the two oils was linalool (12.2 to 15.0%). The essential oil has LC50 value between 160.098 and 171.240 μg/ml indicating moderate toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An investigation was undertaken in this work to model the sorption isotherms of cooked and raw shea nut kernels determined by the standard static gravimetric method. The GAB, Halsey and Caurie models were validated and used in describing the sorption behaviour of the kernels. The monolayer moisture contents derived from Caurie's equation for the desorption of cooked and raw kernels at 40, 50 and 60 °C were 5.49, 4.40 and 2.65 % and 5.22, 3.68 and 2.47 %, respectively. Monolayer moisture contents obtained from the GAB model showed a similar variation. As the temperature of sorption increased from 40 to 60 °C, the number of adsorbed monolayers ( N), the surface area of adsorbent ( A) and the percent bound water decreased significantly ( p < 0.05). It is suggested that the sorption process at all temperatures is multilayered. Desorption isosteric heats were lower for cooked kernels than the raw ones, while the reverse phenomenon was obtained for the adsorption process. It was established that, during storage, cooked kernels adsorbed moisture more slowly, suggesting that they could be stored for a longer period compared to the raw ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-timber forest products contribute significantly to rural livelihoods in the West African savannas. This study investigates differences in use preferences for native woody species in six categories of plant use and their economic returns among five ethnic groups in Northern Benin. Ethnobotanical survey data from 230 households revealed that both ethnic affiliation and location significantly impact species' valuation. Of a total of 90 species, 61 % were used for medicinal applications, 41 % as firewood, 39 % for construction, and 32 % as human foods. While certain plant species were used by all rural dwellers, others were used exclusively by particular ethnic groups. Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Adansonia digitata are key economic species for all groups. Conservation measures should consider multi-purpose trees fulfilling subsistence and cash needs while taking into consideration cultural differences in use preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The standard static gravimetric method was used to determine moisture sorption isotherms of both raw and cooked sheanut kernels at 40, 50 and 60 °C in the water activity range 0.11-0.96 in order to evaluate the influence of cooking on the moisture sorption capacity of the kernels. Preliminary analysis showed that the kernels lost a significant quantity of its proteins and carbohydrate during the cooking process. Results of analysis of the moisture sorption isotherms revealed that cooked kernels generally had significantly ( p < 0.05) lower equilibrium moisture contents (EMC) than the raw ones for both desorption and adsorption processes. The effect of temperature on the sorption processes as portrayed by the desorption isotherms revealed that EMC decreased steadily with increase in temperature within the water activity range 0.10-0.8 a but increased rapidly with increase in temperature above 0.8 a resulting in the overlap of isotherms for all sorption processes. This crossing over of isotherms was attributed to the dissolution of sugars at higher water activities. The protein matrix in the kernel was observed using light microscopy and was found to have been disorientated after cooking. Studies using light and scanning electron microscopy revealed that the reduced ability of cooked kernels to sorb water could be linked to changes in the structure of the kernels brought about by the cooking of the kernels. It is concluded that cooking had a very significant effect on the amount of water sorbed by sheanut kernels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey among 246 people belonging to 14 ethnic groups and living in 5 different parklands in Benin revealed different practices to process shea kernels (namely boiling followed sun drying and smoking) and extract shea butter. A relation between parklands, gathering period, and sun-drying conditions was established. Moisture content and appearance of kernels were the selection criteria for users of shea kernels; color was the main characteristic to buy butter. Constraints to be solved are long processing times, lack of milling equipment and high water requirements. Best practices for smoking, sun drying, and roasting operations need to be established for further improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Vitellaria paradoxa (Butyrospermum parkii (G. Don) Kotschy) est l’une des essences locales d’intérêt socio-économique les plus valorisées par les populations locales dans les savanes soudano-guinéennes d’Afrique. Pendant que le volume des travaux s’accroît en Afrique de l’Ouest sur divers aspects scientifiques de cette Sapotaceae, peu de recherches lui sont consacrées au Cameroun. Afin de contribuer au développement des stratégies de sa conservation, une étude portant sur la structure de sa population et l’exploitation de cette ressource a été conduite dans le plateau de Ngaoundéré au Cameroun. Deux approches méthodologiques faisant intervenir des inventaires botaniques et des enquêtes ethnobotaniques ont été utilisées. Un total de 1966 arbres ont été recensés soit une densité moyenne de 16 individus ha-1. La répartition des arbres suivant les modes d’utilisation des terres montre que la savane naturelle regorge 79,5% de tiges. L’analyse de la structure de population de V. paradoxa révèle que la régénération de l’espèce est bonne tandis que sa survie est compromise par diverses pressions biotiques. La régénération par graines et par rejets de souche est largement influencée par les feux de brousse et le surpâturage. La pression anthropique la plus redoutable est la coupe des arbres pour une utilisation sous forme de bois – énergie. Toutefois, l’arbre coupé peut se maintenir par le rejet de souche. Ces informations vont contribuer à l’élaboration des stratégies appropriées de gestion et de conservation de l’espèce en vue de son introduction systématique dans les systèmes de production paysans. Mots clés : Conservation ; Mode de gestion des terres ; Régénération ; Structure de population ; V. paradoxa Vitellaria paradoxa (Butyrospermum parkii (G. Don) Kotschy) is a most important native tree valued by the local populations in the Sudan-Guinea savannah of Africa. In West Africa, the volume of scientific researches is increasing on this Sapotaceae, but there are few such studies in Cameroon. In order to develop appropriate conservation strategies, a study was undertaken on the population structure and management of the species, in the Ngaoundere highlands of Cameroon. Two methodological approaches using botanical and ethnobotanical surveys were used. A total of 1966 trees were recorded for a density of 16 stems ha-1. Distribution of trees according to the land use systems shows that natural savannah contains 79.5% of stems. The analysis of the population structure of V. paradoxa reveals that the regeneration of the species is good whereas the survival of the adult trees is compromised by various biotic pressures. Propagation by seed and sprouting is largely influenced by bush fires and overgrazing. The most important man-made pressure is fuel wood harvesting. Nevertheless, the species can re-sprout when cut. This information will help in elaborating suitable conservation and management strategies for the species in view of its systematic introduction in the farmer production systems. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The objective of this article is to examine how agricultural intensification and changing land tenure practices impact the management of two valuable parkland species: Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa. The article presents a conceptual framework that examines customary land tenure in an agroecological context. This required a variety of methods, including qualitative surveys on livelihoods and parkland management, surveys on land use history, and tree density measurements in farmers' fields. The research, conducted in northern Benin, reveals that farmers historically exploited the relative sparseness of Parkia biglobosa in natural vegetation by sowing its seeds in their fields in order to distinguish them from unclaimed land. As agriculture has intensified, farmers have abandoned this practice, which is likely contributing to the decline of Parkia biglobosa in regional agricultural landscapes. The abandonment of this practice also reveals an overlooked difference in management strategies for the two species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Folk knowledge has been the basis for selection and improvement of many food crops such as potatoes, sorghum, yams, cassava and rice. In Uganda, there is strong potential to utilize folk knowledge to select and domesticate the shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn. subsp. nilotica (Kotschy) A.N. Henry & Chithra & N.C. Nair), an important economic tree species. Farmers report high variation in fruit yield, tree form and pulp taste. In this study, we documented shea tree folk classification by interviewing 300 respondents, 15 focus groups and 41 key informants across three farming systems of Uganda. Data were analyzed using Kruskall-Wallis and Spearman's tests, Chi-square, Multivariate, Factor and Discriminant Function Analyses. Folk classification and nomenclature of shea tree ethno-varieties is based on fruit/nut organoleptic (color and taste) and morphological attributes. Interestingly, despite the socio-cultural importance of shea oil, it does not feature as a factor in the folk classification and nomenclature of shea tree ethno-varieties. There was no significant difference in classification knowledge across the three farming systems (Kruskal - Wallis X2 = 28, df = 28, p > 0.05; Spearman's R > 0.8, p < 0.0001) although there was significant influence from ethnicity of the respondents (Pillai's trace = 0.817, p < 0.001). While this study provides a record of shea tree ethno-varieties and associated classification criteria, there is need to validate these 'ethno-varieties' using detailed morphological, biochemical and molecular analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infected hosts progressively decrease egg output during the chronic phase of Schistosoma mansoni infection. Ageing may be a factor that results in a progressive decrease in the ability to reproduce. This study was performed to gain insight into the effects of ageing on adult schistosomes, using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Adult worms were recovered from experimentally infected Nectomys squamipes (water rat). Viable eggs were voided in the faeces for 65 weeks and, thereafter, only unviable eggs were eliminated. The rat died after 70 weeks in captivity. Recovered worms (six males and one female) were prepared for confocal microscopy and images were obtained with an LSM 510-ZETA laser confocal microscope. The overall morphology of the adult worms (suckers and tegument) and reproductive organs were the focus of this work. The suckers, ovary, vitellaria and oocytes appeared to be apparently normal. The ootype was formed by flattened cells and unclear nuclei, suggesting that the mechanism for eggshell production by the ootype during organogenesis might have been impaired. Testicular lobes showed empty areas around the germinative cells. Male adult worms showed flaccid musculature of the dorsal surface. Taken together, the present results provided several indications of infertility in older male and female schistosomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: African shea butter, a vegetable fat produced from the seeds of Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn. (syn. Butyrospermum parkii L.), Sapotaceae, is a unique natural product of African countries and is of great nutritional and commercial significance. The volatile compounds of various shea butter samples were analysed to investigate the influence of differences in manufacturing (boiling/roasting or combined procedures) on the headspace composition and with regard to the different origin of the samples. Volatile compounds were analysed by using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry after headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME). Qualitative and semi-quantitative patterns of volatile compounds investigated in this study were composed of fatty acids degradation products, e.g. acetic and hexanoic acid, carbonyl compounds (hexanal, heptanal, trans-2-heptenal, 2,4-heptadienal), 2-pentylfurane, processing compounds like furfural as well as glycerol and residue compounds from technical processing steps including milling. Comparison of the volatile profile of 16 different shea butters from four African countries showed that processing steps including drying of kernels before producing the fat and additional roasting procedures influence shea butter headspace composition significantly. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: The functions of many schistosome gene products remain to be characterized. A major step towards elucidating function of these genes would be in defining their sites of expression. This goal is rendered difficult to achieve by the generally small size of the parasites and the lack of a body cavity, which precludes analysis of transcriptional profiles of the tissues in isolation. Methodology/Principal Findings: Here, we describe a combined laser microdissection microscopy (LMM) and microarray analysis approach to expedite tissue specific profiling and gene atlasing for tissues of adult female Schistosoma japonicum. This approach helps to solve the gene characterization ''bottle-neck'' brought about by acoelomy and the size of these parasites. Complementary RNA obtained after isolation from gastrodermis (parasite gut mucosa), vitelline glands and ovary by LMM were subjected to microarray analyses, resulting in identification of 147 genes upregulated in the gastrodermis, 4,149 genes in the ovary and 2,553 in the vitellaria. Conclusions: This work will help to shed light on the molecular pathobiology of this debilitating human parasite and aid in the discovery of new targets for the development of anti-schistosome vaccines and drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of moisture content and drying temperature of Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn kernels on some of its physical properties was investigated. The kernels which were harvested at a moisture content of about 60% (wet basis) and hence prone to high post harvest losses from two ecological zones of Cameroon (Bangoua in West province and Tchabal in Adamawa province) were dried in a forced convection dryer at 40oC, for 6, 20, 48, 72 and 96 hours to give moisture contents ranging from 10 to 60% wet basis. Ten trees from each of the zones were carefully selected to serve as sources for the ripe kernel bearing shea fruits that were used as samples for this study. For each parameter studied, a sample population of 30 kernels selected at random per tree was used. The results obtained revealed that there was a significant difference in the physical properties of the kernels from different trees irrespective of the locality. The bulk density, true density, sphericity and porosity varied non-linearly with the moisture content. Kernels with larger masses showed a different variation pattern of bulk density and porosity with moisture content compared to the lighter kernels. The variation of the bulk density, sphericity, porosity of sheanut kernels with moisture content and temperature was satisfactorily modelled with empirical equations. The samples underwent considerable shrinkage (up to 35%) during the drying process. Three empirical models were used to describe the shrinkage behaviour of the kernels and it is proposed that these models could be incorporated in drying models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Cameroon, the demand for hive products is growing. Honey and pollen yields are low in the country, partly because of the poor knowledge of the apicultural value of the flora. To determine the apicultural value of Dichrostachys cinerea (L.), Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. F., Persea americana Mill. and Securidaca Iongepedunculata Fres., Apis mellifera adansonii Latreille activity was observed on the flowers of these plants in Ngaoundéré, from December 2001 to May 2002 and from December 2002 to May 2003. The flowers of each plant species were prospected at least 4 days per month, between 0700 and 1800 h, for recording of the nectar and/or pollen foraging behaviour of A. m. adansonii workers, Results show that A. m. adansonii harvest nectar and pollen of V. paradoxa, P. americana and S. Iongepedunculata. The flowers of D. cinerea were visited for pollen only. The greatest number of workers foraging simultaneously on a plant varied from 34 (D. cinerea) to 1640 (P. americana). A. m. adansonii workers that visited flowers of a given plant species once remained with this nectar source throughout the observation period. Thus V. paradoxa, P. americana and S. longepedunculata could be cultivated and protected to increase honey production, whereas D. cinerea could enable bee-keepers to increase their pollen production as a hive product. During foraging, A. m. adansonii workers increased pollination possibilities of each of the plant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metacercariae of Acanthoparyphium marilae Yamaguti, 1934 (Digenea: Echinostomatidae) were discovered in an intertidal clam, Mactra veneriformis, in a southwestern coastal area of the Republic of Korea. A total of 128 metacercariae were detected from 10 clams examined. They were round, 320 µm in average diameter, with 23 collar spines. They were fed experimentally to chicks, and 10 days later adult flukes were obtained. The adults were morphologically characterized by the head collar with a single row of 23 dorsally uninterrupted spines, without special end group spines, a round ventral sucker, 2 round and tandem testes, and vitellaria extending at lateral fields from the posterior extremity not beyond the middle level of the posterior testis. The most characteristic feature of this species was the limited distribution of vitellaria, which differs from Acanthoparyphium tyosenense Yamaguti, 1939, the metacercariae of which are encysted in the same mollusk species. This is the first report in which the metacercariae of this species were detected, and the intertidal bivalve, M. veneriformis, has been identified as a second intermediate host for A. marilae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synthesium pontoporiae n. comb. is redescribed, together with Synthesium tursionis and Synthesium seymouri n. comb.; the parasites were obtained from stranded and accidentally caught cetaceans. The sucker ratio (ratio between widths of the oral and ventral suckers) in S. pontoporiae was 1:1.8-3.0 (mean 1:2.2); in S. tursionis was 1:0.8-1.2; and in S. seymouri was 1:0.5-0.7. Synthesium pontoporiae differed from its congeners by additional diagnostic characters, including: oval to lobed testes; small cirrus with pyriform proximal region and flexible, tubular distal region formed by evagination of ejaculatory duct; and vitellarium in small follicles extending from the level of the seminal vesicle to the posterior extremity of the body and not forming dendritic radial bunches. Data on the morphology of adult S. pontoporiae and S. tursionis were inferred from confocal laser microscopical observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of crown pruning of mature indigenous fruit trees of Vitellaria paradoxa C. F Gaertn (commonly known as karité)and Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don (commonly known as n éré) on recovery of crown size and fruit yield were assessed during 6 years in an agroforestry parkland system in Burkina Faso. Three treatments of crown pruning (total-pruning, half-pruning and a control of no-pruning) were applied to karité and néré. Each treatment comprised ten individuals of each species or a total of 60 trees of both species. Six years after pruning, higher recovery (81%) of crown diameter was achieved in total-pruned trees of néré as opposed to karité which recovered by only 73%. On the contrary, fruit production in total-pruned trees of karité recovered by 83% 5 years after pruning and fully (100%) 6 years after pruning as opposed to néré which recovered by only 57% 5 years after pruning but declined to 16% on the sixth year probably due to interannual variability. Fruit yields did not differ significantly between unpruned and half-pruned trees of both species throughout the experiment period. Total pruning may, therefore, be recommended to farmers to rejuvenate old trees of karité in parklands on the basis of fast recovery of fruit and slow recovery of crown in the species. Slow recovery of crown in pruned trees is the most desirable characteristic in parklands in order to avoid the negative effect of tree shade on adjacent crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shea tree, Vitellaria paradoxa, is a socio-economically important tree for the rural population in parts of West Africa. Our study assessed the current status of this native tree species with regard to increasing human pressure in northern Benin. We compared distribution of adult shea trees, seedlings and saplings in farmed lands with protected areas in the Biosphere Reserve of Pendjari (BRP). At our study site near BRP, agricultural activities foster recruitment of shea trees by regularly cropping of vegetation cover. Furthermore, traditional farming practices preserve adult individuals thus permitting regular fruit harvests. Consequently, most of the tallest and largest individuals of shea trees are found in framed lands. In contrast, the highest density of juvenile trees including seedlings (dbh <5 cm) and saplings (dbh 5-10 cm) occurred within BRP. Saplings were negatively affected by farming activities. Furthermore, spatial point pattern analysis revealed differences in the spatial structure of juveniles. Juveniles showed significant aggregations at small scale (<20 m) in BRP as well as significant and positive small-scale associations with adult trees. This contrasts with farmed lands where we did not find such spatial patterns at similar small scale but only a weak aggregation between juveniles and absence of association (attraction) of adults to juveniles. Although our analyses indicate that shea trees are rather well preserved, we conclude that the observed severe reduction of saplings in farmed lands is likely to negatively impact the long-term viability of the tree population. Therefore agroforestry practices must consider the preservation of sapling populations in farming areas for long-term conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitellaria paradoxa, known as Shea tree or karité, is one of the dominant trees of agroforestry parklands in Sahelian region with an immense commercial value. In this study, we examined infestation of fruit-bearing shoots and fruits on two sites in western Burkina Faso across different reproductive phenophases, crown heights and aspects. The number of infested and healthy shoots and fruits were counted on 60 reproductively active trees randomly selected from on-year shea trees in each site, using a metal frame (0.5 x 0.5 m) to mark a fixed area of the canopy for sampling. The shoot and fruit borer was identified as Salebria sp. (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae), which was not reported earlier. The proportion of infested trees and shoots varied significantly between sites and among reproductive phenophases (P < 0.0001). The site close to the natural forest had the highest infestation rate than distantly located site. Among reproductive phenophases, the proportions of infested trees and shoots were the highest during flowering and fruit set, respectively. Fruit infestation also varied significantly between sites, crown heights and aspects (P < 0.001). The site close to the natural forest and the crown with north-east aspect were heavily infested while the bottom part of the crown had the lowest infestation. As a whole, 49-80% of trees, 24-31% of shoots and 4-15% of fruits were found infested, depending on the site. These infestation levels combined with precocious flower and fruit abscissions would pose serious economic losses that justify a call for immediate pest control initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field survey on indigenous fruit tree species (IFTS) was conducted in Adwari subcounty, Lira district between August 2004 and March 2005. The objectives were to: determine IFTS diversity in the traditional farming system; generate a species priority list, characterize and document the values of IFTS as perceived by farmers; and develop criteria for selecting IFTS for on-farm cultivation. A questionnaire designed to capture socio-economic data was administered to 120 randomly selected respondents. Farm walks were conducted to identify and assess the proportion of farmland under IFTS. Preference ranking was used to generate a species priority list. On-farm diversity of IFTS was analyzed using Shannon–Wiener’s diversity index (H′). DAFOR scale was used to rate occurrence of IFTS on-farm. The diversity of IFTS was relatively high (H′ = 2.164) although the average proportion of farmland under IFTS cover was low (23.3 ± 5%). Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Anona senegalensis and Tamarindus indica were most preferred by local people. The choice of IFTS for on-farm cultivation varied from their food, medicinal to cash values. There is a need to formulate clear policies and by-laws to encourage on-farm cultivation of IFTS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]