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The essay examines the history of interactions between academic thinkers and the application of their ideas to airline management and policy. Many studies of the history of transport focus on developments in engineering hardware and business models underlying its use, together with historical biographies of the key individuals involved. Here I deviate from this to look at how, over the past half-century or so, ideas emanating from the new behavioural economics have permeated the way air transport markets, and their regulation, have developed. I consider the outcomes on air carriers and their markets of efforts at combining psychology and economics into matters concerning airline management and policy formulation. It looks at the ways in which the traditional economic framework that dominated much of the thinking about commercial air transport from the 1920s has been challenged over the past 50 years and the implications of this for carriers and passengers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is concerned with the likely future direction of social science, and especially economic, research in air transportation. To avoid excessive speculation, the assessment is based on as much factual information as possible. It assumes, for example, that much of the technology likely to be used in the near future is known today, although it may not yet be fully developed. To provide a structure, other than just a long list of research possibilities, the study considers three basic trends--continuing trends, trend breaks, and new trends--in air transportation. The approach adopted is also mainly demand driven in that it looks at the probable research needed to explore these various trends, and it says little about how this research may be resourced, or how research priorities are likely to be determined. It is positive in its approach, trying to be as objective as possible, and focusing more on the use of developments in economic and related analysis than on normative debates about what policies should be pursued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper looks at the economics of ridesourcing (or app-based ride-hailing) with a particular focus on the US. It brings together the rather dispersed literature on the subject focusing on the economic characteristics of the underlying industry and sets this within the broader context of transportation economics. In particular, it sorts out the realities of ridesourcing from some of myths that were perpetrated in its early days and, in many cases, still persist. It considers some of the empirical evidence that has emerged regarding the key parameters that determine the way Uber and the like operate, and the welfare implications of this, together with comments on some of the regulatory reactions to the new transportation platform. It concludes by suggesting some ways in which recent developments in economic could move forward our understanding of the industry as technologies and markets change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Examines the roles of airline deregulation and wider common markets on Sub-Sahara African Aviation. • Estimates the concentration of airlines on major Sub-Saharan routes. • Examines the factors influencing passenger air travel in the Sub-Sahara mega-region. • Compares the findings from Sub-Sahara Africa with both prior studies of the region and other large geographical markets. We examine the effects of institutional reforms on both the demand and supply of air transportation in Sub-Saharan Africa. We specifically consider changes in air transportation regulations and the development of general Common Markets for trade in goods and services on African aviation. This is at a time when aviation is becoming more important in the development of tourism, the export of perishables such as flowers, and in linking emergent clusters of manufacturing and service industries. In examining the implications of economic changes affecting passenger airlines we also provides some weak-replication of previous studies of demand elasticities in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines some of the important trends in economics that influenced the liberalization of aviation markets from the late 1970s, the role that economics has played in the subsequent assessment of the implications of these reforms and more recent policy "tweaking", and at the possible importance of more recent trends in economic thinking in influencing future policy developments. It primarily highlights the roles played by economic analysis in understanding how markets for airline, airport, and air traffic control work, how many of these features have been quantified, and situations where serious market failures can occur. • Provides assessment of economic theory in developing aviation policy. • Provides a contextual overview of the ways in which economic regulation develops. • Offers some thoughts about the future role of economics in shaping aviation policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The difficulties economists have in conducting laboratory experiments necessitates much of their applied analysis being based on numerous quasi-experiments conducted under a variety of uncontrolled conditions. The result is the need to synthesis these results if any generally useful parameters are to be found for such things as value transfers or policy assessments in transportation. The paper reviews some of the issues involved in using meta-analysis to conduct statistical analysis of such previous quantitative work in transportation economics, examines the success that more recent meta studies have had in overcoming earlier criticisms of the methodology, and sets this in the contexts of on-going developments in meta-analysis more generally. The paper suggests ways that meta-analytics can address some remaining issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper adopts a methodology initially developed for seaport choice and applies it to catchment areas for airports in part of the Adriatic region. Unlike much of the analysis of small airports in the region, which focuses on destination airports in the region, the work considers the demands for airports by residents. The analysis differs from most other studies of this sort by combining both hard data and that from surveys of airport users, to look at the attractiveness of various airports in the region to potential travellers. From a policy perspective, good information regarding the economic attractiveness of various facilities is lacking when it comes to deciding whether airports justify additional investment or whether they continue to be useful attributes to the aviation network. The findings also have relevance for the planning of surface transportation access to airports in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper sets in context some of the more recent work that has been conducted on public–private partnerships (PPPs) in the provision and operation of infrastructure. PPPs essentially involve a government or its agent signing an agreement with a private company or consortium to supply it with services with the private sector actor involved in major elements of designing, building, temporarily ‘owning’, and running the physical assets; basically they are long-term development and service contracts between government and a private partner. The paper outlines the development of economic thinking regarding the rationale behind PPPs, the extent to which unbundling is optimal and the forms that it may take, the nature of the contracts that are enacted and their renegotiation, the awarding of contracts, and matters of possible corruption. By way of focus, it also provides some indication of what empirical studies in the transportation have thrown up regarding the outcomes of PPPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a broader understanding of seaport choice. There has been considerable expansion in international maritime container based trade that is requiring substantial investment in seaport capacity. The growth in demand for port services has, however, neither been even over time nor across ports making the defining of appropriate investment policies challenging. Most studies of port choice, a major factor in the demand for any individual port, focus on relatively easily quantified measures, such as financial costs, to the neglect of less tangible factors that also influence decision-making. Here we examine the role played by subjective factors, namely the preference rates in port choice, by focusing on the optimal port of call of shipping lines serving South-east Asian and European ports drawing upon trade-offs between generalized costs and preference rates. An analytic hierarchy process is employed to ascertain the subjective element. The findings confirm that subjectivity does matter in influencing port choice, and thus failure to incorporate it in policy-making can involve leaving out an important element in the management of port investment and financing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the state of publishing in transportation research journals. Topics discussed include the growth in the number of journals about transportation, the concern about peer reviewing, and the pressure faced by editors associated with the increase in transportation scribbling. Also mentioned the comment of author George H. Borts about editing the periodical "American Economic Review."

We examine the various forces influencing the development and uptake of environmentally beneficial technical changes, focusing on airline technology. Within this context, we consider not only the nature of competition within the final market in which aircraft, an intermediate product, are sold, but also that of the product market itself, the commercial airline industry. The reasons for the gradual reduction in CO 2 per seat per aircraft movement in aircraft design are examined in terms of the real costs of aviation fuel, changes in the nature of the supply industry, the movement towards carbon cap-trade policies, and endogenous technical progress in the technology of the industry. The latter being taken as an empirical proxy for the role market forms play in influencing the fuel efficiency of the types of aircraft used. The results support the existence of these latter forces on the demand for aircraft types, allowing for other influences that affect aircraft technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite efforts to enhance the efficiency of the African air transportation sector through such actions the Yamoussoukro Decision, African represents less than 2% of the world’s air passenger kilometers. This is despite the fact that air transportation can act as a means of transporting traded goods directly (including the individuals that are the “product” of tourism) and provide complementary services of labor mobility for those engaged in the production of more bulky goods that are shipped by land and maritime modes. We examine the network of intra-Sub-Saharan African airline connections to highlight the differential access enjoyed by the region’s largest cities. Second, we develop a quantitative framework linking the availability of air connections to the main international trade flows in sub-Sahara Africa. Our findings suggest that, although there is a positive link between air transportation and economic development in Africa, the multilateral efforts at reducing institutional impediments to more open aviation markets have not produced significant results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines the potential role that airfreight transport in the US can play in stimulating local and regional economic development. The analysis examines trends in employment and income for metropolitan statistical areas that make use of airfreight services. The focus is on causality, and not on simple correlation, and uses econometric analysis rather than simpler economic multiplier approaches. Granger causality testing based on panel data covering 35 airport and 32 metropolitan statistical areas in the US from 1990 to 2009 indicates that airfreight transport was a positive driver for local economic development. The conclusions focus on the strengths but also the weaknesses of the methodology for assessing causality. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article examines the sustainability of the low-cost, or no-frills, airline business model. It looks at the background to the development of this managerial approach within the context of some prevailing business theories and considers variations on the basic low-cost airline model. It assesses, drawing from the experiences of a number of markets, whether the model in itself is likely to be enduring, or whether it is simply a transient way for some airlines to recover their full costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The institutional background against which air transport is supplied has been changing rapidly. The initiation of market forces has led to lower fares, additional services, and more efficient airline companies as competitive pressures have grown. A major concern, however, is whether the resultant airline market is sustainable in the long-term. There have been periodic short-term shocks to the market, the most recent being the rapid rise in kerosene prices, but there are more fundamental issues concerning the possibility of excess competition being a generic feature of providing scheduled services in a competitive environment. Market stability is not easily tested, but some indicators can be explored to get better insights. Here we examine the fares offered in selected Portuguese air transport markets for 2005-2006 to assess the ability of carriers to recover their full costs - a necessary condition for stability. In particular, the paper is concerned with the pressures of competition on the ability of airlines to increase the fares that they offer as the scheduled date of departure approaches; such fares contribute significantly to an airline's recovery of full costs. The evidence suggests that in many cases airlines cannot, when confronted by competition, extract additional revenues from last minute, low-price elasticity passengers and that this could reduce the economic sustainability of some services in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the most important transport modes in the USA, air transportation has both influenced economic development and been influenced by it. Knowing the scale of these effects is important both for the development and management of airports, and for policy makers who make strategic decisions regarding airport planning and investment. Prior studies of the economic impacts of air transportation have focused mainly on the ties between large airports and regional economic development. Much less attention has been paid to the impact of small airports on their local areas. Some argue that small airports operating a passenger model not unlike an urban transit service can contribute significantly to regional economic development. However, with the exception of some work on high-income tourist destinations, previous studies provide little clear evidence to support a strong positive correlation between local air transportation and economic development. Furthermore, the direction of causation between air traffic and economic development is not entirely clear: regional economic development driven by other factors can lead to more air traffic; however, it is also possible that by generating traffic, airports act as a catalyst for local investment. This study uses a sample of 66 small airports in Virginia to explore the functional relationship between local air transportation and regional economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The regulatory reforms of domestic airline markets and regional markets such as the Europe Economic Area and the increased number of Open Skies agreements have led to a move away from the administrative structure of fare setting to one dominated by market forces. Within this latter framework the initial market power and price leadership exercised by former flag carriers and charter airlines is gradually being eroded by the emergence of low-cost carriers among other factors. A major problem encountered in supplying pre-committed scheduled services in a competitive market is that of full cost recovery. It has been argued, mainly from studies using aggregate data, that the ability of major carriers to recover fixed costs has deteriorated in deregulated markets as barometric price leadership is replacing that of dominant firm price leadership. This paper uses disaggregate data to examine the pattern of fares set by airlines as they sell seats up to the time of departure of a service. In particular, it analyses the impact of the entrance of low-cost carriers into a small country—Portugal—focusing on the changes that are occurring in Lisbon and Porto airports. As such it looks at the way the price of a particular product—an airline service—varies in different market environments and whether price discrimination (yield-management) is any longer a viable approach to full cost recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The paper explores ways in which economists view parking charges within the context of policy formulation. Recent trends in economic analysis have taken more note of the institutional structure in which decisions are made; institutions embracing both formal structures such as laws but also the de facto ways in which actual outcomes emerge. While this distinction is often applied to final consumers, it also has relevance for those setting and enforcing micro economic policies such as parking policies. Taking a neo-classical economic approach would lead parking policies in one direction, but allowing for transactions costs, hysteresis, second-best factors, game-playing, etc. as well as normative concerns over equity of various kinds, all of which reflect institutional structures, can lead into a variety of others. The aim is to explain why current parking policies deviate from classical economic ideals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Competition in the European airline industry is currently fierce in the face of depressed demand conditions, and in the wake of privatizations and liberalization. The Portuguese flag carrier, TAP Air Portugal, operates within this environment. It is a medium sized carrier that was part of the defunct Qualiflyer Group alliance and has recently joined the Star Alliance. It controls more than 50% of the air market between Europe and Brazil and Europe and Angola. Nevertheless, it has been experiencing financial losses. One reason for this is that, following the reasoning of Ronald Coase (1946), it is difficult for any company with decreasing average costs to recover full costs in a highly competitive market. One way of approaching the problem is to establish quasi-monopoly power and airlines have done this through such things as frequent flyer programs and hub-and-spoke operations. Other airlines, notably charter carriers, have sought to adjust capacity and services to meet an anticipated cash flow. In practice, many have used a combination of measures with mixed success. This paper focuses on how TAP has responded to changing conditions by adjusting its supply-side activities in terms of restructuring its network to maximize potential revenues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been significant changes in the nature of shipping services in recent years. These have been most notably in the liner segment, but other parts of the market have not remained static. Technology shifts have been responsible for some of the change, but there have also been developments in institutional structures and managerial approaches. The economic drivers behind the sector, however, remain relatively poorly understood, despite a copious literature on shipping. Managerial economics has tended to put emphasis on the emergence of more sophisticated logistics structures and the role of information to tighten the overall supply chain. Industrial economists have been concerned with technical change and in particular with its interaction with more liberal markets structures. Often tied with this has been interest in the underlying nature of shipping markets (e.g. competitive, monopolistic or contestable) and, depending on the outcome, whether there is price leadership, collusion, predatory behaviour or whatever. Much of this work has been aspatial, treating shipping as any other industry with distance between demand and supply ignored or incorporated in a very simplistic manner. Environmental economists have focused on matters of fuel efficiency and pollution. This paper takes a broad overview of shipping economics in the context of the larger institutional framework within which it operates. It seeks broader analysis within an institutional economics framework, but also highlights some of the problems of achieving this. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Economic rent seeking is the raison d''être of a commercial undertaking and acts as the manipulator of Adam Smith''s ‘invisible hand’. The retention of economic rent, however, can cause undesirable distortions, especially if it persists over a long period. Public policy, therefore, often seeks to tempt business with the promise of rent, allow business an occasional nibble, but at the same time create structures whereby business cannot swim away with the bait. The discussion here is of how slot allocation procedures have rent seeking implications that affect both the existence of economic rents and the distribution of these rents. The actors in the game are the airlines, airports and politicians (broadly defined to include the executive as well as legislators). The ultimate distribution of rent is essentially a political decision, as is any form of allocation, but its form is influenced by the underlying nature of the market for slots and the way in which market power is spread. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Introduces the November 2004 issue of the journal "Transport Reviews."

Cities are complex and dynamic entities. They are also nodes in spatial economic, social and political geographical networks. They are focal points for many of the concerns that underlay current debates about sustainable development. The aim of this paper is to focus on the local environmental effects of urbanization and to consider ways in which they may be effectively treated within the confines of an isolated city context and more generally when urban areas are seen as part of a wider economic system. Particular attention is focused on information systems of all types and on feedback mechanisms (including automatic mechanisms) which help, in particular, the integration of economic and environmental considerations at the urban level. The underlying question being posed is that of deciding on the role that urban indicators (both economic and environmental) can play in assisting to improve the management of cities. The points made are general and conceptual rather than being of a quantitative and empirical nature. There is no effort to try and provide comment on the existing indicators which various urban actors use in their efforts to manage urban affairs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper provides a synthesis of information from extant research and policy documentation on information technology (IT) workforce issues in the US and abroad. In particular, it addresses some of the issues that concerned the USA's 21st Century Workforce Commission, which was established to look at the IT labour market. It defines the IT market fairly broadly and is concerned with the overall IT workforce. The paper covers both supply and demand issues and looks to address a variety of questions concerning the longer-term nature of IT employment and any potential labour market imperfections that may arise through inappropriate educational strategies. It looks at the skills needed to obtain IT jobs, ways to increase the supply of IT workers, and describes and assesses a number of foreign programmes for training individuals for IT employment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is concerned with the remaining limitations to full interoperability within the European Union (EU) air transport market. Twenty years ago the European air transport network was fragmented, with airlines being treated as public entities designed to serve largely national interests. Considerable progress has been made in recent years, notably the three 'Packages' of EU legislation, to remove such barriers. The situation still differs in several ways from the almost totally free market that has been in place in the USA since the 1980s but, within the EU, fares and market entry are independent of national frontiers. Some barriers remain, largely legacy effects that are gradually being tidied up, but with some significant matters concerning routes outside of the EU and capacity constraints relating to the still largely publicly provided infrastructure still needing resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT This paper looks at the linkages between three recent developments in spatial economics that in combination have changed the way that economic growth is viewed. These new approaches are that of the New Growth Theory, the measurement of geographical economic convergence, and the role of infrastructure in stimulating economic growth. In combination these developments may combine to provide a different perspective on why regions often grow at differential rates, ways of measuring these differences, and possible policy interventions to manipulate geographical variations in the growth process. The paper argues, however, that these concepts, while they may offer new insights, are nevertheless unlikely to provide a complete picture of why spatial economic divergence is widespread nor a set of policy instruments that can be simply deployed to ameliorate such discrepancies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Initial Cu[SUP++] sorption by Cyclotella meneghiniana Kutz. (Cu[SUP++] sensitive) and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Dangeard (C resistant) was rapid in the first 5 min of Cu[SUP++] incubation with little sorption after 2h. On a cell to cell basis, Cyclotella sorbed ca. five times more Cu[SUP++] from the medium than chlamydomonas. In MBL medium with EDTA Cyclotella and Chlamydomonas cells sorbed 21.0 and 4.41 nM Cu[SUP++]/10[SUP6] cells respectively in 6 h with 0.3 mg Cu[SUP++] /1 in the medium. Proportionally similar quantities of Cu[SUP++] were sorbed when the cells were Cu[SUP++] incubated in MBL + citrate or filtered lake water. Cleaned cell walls of Cyclotella sorbed little Cu[SUP++] (1.7 nM/10[SUP6] cells) as compared to living cells (17.5 nM Cu[SUP++] /10[SUP6] cells) in 3 h. Therefore, in living Cyclotella most of the Cu[SUP++] taken up must be absorbed by the protoplasm or perhaps by the organic layer surrounding the silica wall. Cleaned cells walls of Chlamydomonas sorbed 3.5 nM Cu[SUP++]/10[SUP6] cell and living Chlamydomonas cells sorbed 2.6 nM Cu[SUP++] /10[SUP6] cells. This indicates that most of the Cu[SUP++] sorbed by Chlamydomonas cells remained bound to the cell wall and probably did not readily enter into the protoplasm. When placed in Cu[SUP++] free medium after Cu[SUP++] incubation, Cyclotella and Chlamydomonas cells released 46 and 59% respectively of the Cu[SUP++] sorbed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deals with the environmental issues in regional, urban and transport economics. Experiments and exogeneity in natural and social sciences; Roles for meta-analysis; Alternative meta-analytical techniques; Applications of meta-analysis in environmental and spatial economics and related fields.

Looks at the underlying nature of the potential problem associated with the network industries in the transport and telecommunication sectors in Europe. Economic features of networks; Issues of stability; Conclusions.

Examines changes in the economic performance of Western European regional economies. Background on the study method; Approaches to studying economic convergence; Mean reversion method.

A chytridiaceous fungus, mDangeardia ammillata, was found to be selectively parasitizing the volvocalean Pandorina sp. In a shallow eutrophic mountain lake in northern Arizona. Population estimates of infected algal colonies reached 68% during epidemic periods (Feb.-Mar.). Selected physicochemical parameters were measured during the infection period, with temperature found to be the most important factor in regulating chytrid parasitism. Infection only occurred at temperatures below 17 C in the field, and infection only at low temperatures was confirmed by laboratory investigations. Other parameters showed no apparent relationship with the chytrid-algal association. The roles of photosynthetic exudates are also discussed in regulation of chytrid parasitism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article takes a look at some of the inherent problems in comparing the differing approaches to airline deregulation across the Atlantic. Liberalization has happened in a progressive way and without major upsets. This contrasts with the situation that the US experienced at the time of deregulation of the aviation market. The European Community (EU)has been able to find the correct balance between competition and control mechanism. U.S. domestic aviation was heavily regulated from the late 1920s, initially as part of a policy to foster air mail services but subsequently on grounds of promoting safety and, from 1938, to seek economic efficiency. The U.S. liberalized market is mainly domestic, whereas that within the EU is predominantly international. The size of the European market is also reflected in the size of the EU's airlines. The U.S. reformed its domestic air transport market in a specific way but also in the context of a set of geographical, institutional, and economic conditions that were somewhat different from those pertaining in the EU.

The late 1970s and early 1980s witnessed a major shift in U.S. transportation policy. Initial de facto liberalization of entry into the domestic civil aviation and trucking markets subsequently led to a rush of legislation resulting in the establishment of quasi-contestable markets, not only in aviation and motor carriage but also for railroad and long-distance bus services. The U.S. experience following the phase of liberalization has influenced recent changes in Great Britain transport policy. By itself the generally favorable impression gained in the United Kingdom of what has emerged in the United States has not forced through change, but it certainly has contributed to the debates on the subject. This article provides a very brief outline of the historical facts, setting out broad details of the development and nature of the regulatory regime until the mid 1970s and specifically outlining the events since 1978. The influences are examined which have produced the cycle from no-regulation through regulation to recent liberalization.

ABSTRACT Intra-European transport policy has gradually moved towards a liberalized regime, both within most nations and the EU as an entity. Globalization trends and other, more limited aspects of internationalization, imply that the next phase is the greater integration of European economies with other economic systems. This is already taking place, but its fulfilment will involve new thinking regarding the roles of national and regional institutions. This paper looks at the nature of the future challenges that face European transport policy makers to meet this larger geographical remit and examine the forms of institutional structures which may permit an efficient transition. To substantiate alternative hypotheses, the paper will examine the various efforts that have been made to date in different transport fields in developing wider international structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the economics of Africa's emerging air cargo supply chains, taking floriculture as a case study. Floriculture is an important employer, and earner of foreign exchange for several regions of central/southern and eastern Africa including more recently Ethiopia. Air transportation often plays a critical role when the supply-chain involves high-value, non-durable, relatively light-weight, and compact consignments such as flowers, and geographically when regions are difficult to access by other trunk modes. The success of air cargo chains, however, depend as much on the quality of surface modes serving various "last mile" access and egress functions, as well as efficient nodal interchange points and the availability of suitable airport and airline capacity. The last, because of the important role of belly-hold space, includes consideration of passenger as well as cargo specific services. To meet the needs of Africa's floriculture sector, a variety of supply-chain models have emerged that embrace air and surface links, as well as storage at various points in the chain. The paper considers the nature of these chains, the reason d'être for their structures , and their limitations. • Provides details of Africa's air transportation-based, floricultural cold-supply chains. • Examines the economic forces influencing the nature of the chains. • Explores the challenges of surface access to trunk air-cargo services. • Compares the features of largely market driven and more centrally controlled chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The September 11, 2001 attacks brought to the forefront long-standing concerns that terrorists could severely disrupt the global supply chain by using shipping containers or vessels to attack population centers or critical infrastructure. The U.S. and multilateral regulators responded by implementing security requirements that focus on the maritime industry. It is difficult to quantify the economic impacts of these regulations as maritime shipping firms have been either reluctant to share their data for proprietary and security reasons or have not been able to quantify costs. This article reports on how firms involved in U.S. waterborne container trade have responded to the new maritime container security initiatives. Senior container line executives, port officials, and marine terminal security officers were interviewed. It is concluded that the biggest benefit of the new security requirements is that they have fostered a cooperative security relationship between industry and government. There remain, however, important issues such as port security funding and supply chain recovery that need to be addressed more fully. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women form an increasingly large proportion of both the populations of the US and of European countries. This, together with the changing role of women in modern society, has important potential implications for transport policy. Looked at from the micro level, women have different travel patterns from men, reflecting factors such as lower labour force participation, lower income levels, their traditional role in the family, the decision-making structure within households, the current age distribution and physical vulnerability. The situation is changing and this will have implications on transport demands. The female population is also, on average, getting older. Traditional travel modelling spends much time on modal attributes, such as speed and cost, but for many women this may not be the central issue. Security is often important. Standard traffic models only implicitly allow for gender (e.g. travel time is valued different from work and non-work trips). With the increased complexity of life styles and the growth in multi-purpose trips by women, the conventional approach to travel time valuation may need to be rethought. This paper looks at some of the emerging issues regarding women and travel and puts them in the context of the emerging ideas concerning sustainable transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]