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Machine learning based surrogate models offer researchers powerful tools for accelerating simulation-based workflows. However, as standard datasets in this space often cover small classes of physical behavior, it can be difficult to evaluate the efficacy of new approaches. To address this gap, we introduce the Well: a large-scale collection of datasets containing numerical simulations of a wide variety of spatiotemporal physical systems. The Well draws from domain experts and numerical software developers to provide 15TB of data across 16 datasets covering diverse domains such as biological systems, fluid dynamics, acoustic scattering, as well as magneto-hydrodynamic simulations of extra-galactic fluids or supernova explosions. These datasets can be used individually or as part of a broader benchmark suite. To facilitate usage of the Well, we provide a unified PyTorch interface for training and evaluating models. We demonstrate the function of this library by introducing example baselines that highlight the new challenges posed by the complex dynamics of the Well. The code and data is available at https://github.com/PolymathicAI/the_well., Comment: 38th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2024) Track on Datasets and Benchmarks

The characterization of magnetic fields within molecular clouds is fundamental to understanding star formation processes. Accurately gauging the three-dimensional structure of these fields presents a challenge, as observational techniques such as dust polarization and the Zeeman effect each provide only partial information on the orientation and line-of-sight strength, respectively. By analyzing a suite of AREPO simulations, this paper investigates how observables can relate to underlying physical properties to derive a more comprehensive picture of the magnetic field's inclination angle and strength, specifically in regions where both dust polarization and Zeeman data are available. To demonstrate the method, we produce synthetic observations of the polarization angle dispersion and line-of-sight Alfv\'en Mach Number and explore the behavior of the inclination angle, $\gamma$, and strength of the magnetic field in regions where both Zeeman and dust polarization data are available. We find that dust polarization data can be used to determine the inclination angle if the cloud is known to be trans-Alfv\'enic or sub-Alfv\'enic. The strength of the magnetic field relative to turbulence can be estimated by comparing polarization observations to Zeeman observations. Comparing the dispersion of the polarization angle to the estimated line-of-sight Alfv\'en Mach Number provides clues about the strength of the magnetic field and, consequently, the orientation of the magnetic field., Comment: 16 pages, 12 figures, 1 table

We study the effects of AGN feedback on the Lyman-$\alpha$ forest 1D flux power spectrum (P1D). Using the Simba cosmological-hydrodynamic simulations, we examine the impact that adding different AGN feedback modes has on the predicted P1D. We find that, for Simba, the impact of AGN feedback is most dramatic at lower redshifts ($z<1$) and that AGN jet feedback plays the most significant role in altering the P1D. The effects of AGN feedback can be seen across a large range of wavenumbers ($1.5\times10^{-3}2.0$), AGN feedback has a $2\%$ effect on the P1D for $k<5\times10^{-2}$ s/km and an $8\%$ effect for $k>5\times10^{-2}$ s/km. We show that the small scale effect is reduced when normalizing the simulation to the observed mean flux. On large scales, the effect of AGN feedback appears via a change in the IGM temperature and is thus unlikely to bias cosmological parameters. The strong AGN jets in the Simba simulation can reproduce the $z>2$ Lyman-$\alpha$ forest. We stress that analyses comparing different AGN feedback models to future higher precision data will be necessary to determine the full extent of this effect., Comment: 17 pages, 5 figures, submitted to ApJ

To date, JWST has detected the earliest known star clusters in our Universe (Adamo et al. 2024, Messa et al. 2024, Vanzella et al. 2024, Mowla et al. 2024). They appear to be relatively compact (~few pc, Adamo et al. 2024) and had only recently formed their stars. It was speculated that these clusters may be the earliest progenitors of globular clusters ever detected. Globular clusters are a relic of the initial stages of star formation in the Universe. However, because they contain little to no dark matter (e.g., Heggie & Hut 1996, Bradford et al. 2011, Conroy et al. 2011, Ibata et al. 2013), their formation mechanism poses a significant theoretical challenge. A recent suggestion pointed out that the relative velocity between the gas and the dark matter (Tseliakhovich & Hirata 2010) in the early Universe could naturally form potentially star-forming regions outside of dark matter halos. Here, for the first time, we follow the star formation process of these early Universe objects using high-resolution hydrodynamical simulations, including mechanical feedback. Our results suggest that the first dark matter-less star clusters are top-heavy, with a higher abundance of massive stars compared to today's clusters and extremely high stellar mass surface densities compared to the local Universe., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures

The escape of LyC photons emitted by massive stars from the dense interstellar medium of galaxies is one of the most significant bottlenecks for cosmological reionization. The escape fraction shows significant scatter between galaxies, and anisotropic, spatial variation within them, motivating further study of the underlying physical factors responsible for these trends. We perform numerical radiation hydrodynamic simulations of idealized clouds with different gas surface densities (compactness) $\Sigma \sim 10^2$--$10^5 \, M_{\odot} \rm{pc}^{-2}$, meant to emulate star cluster-forming clumps ranging from conditions typical of the local Universe to the high ISM-pressure conditions more frequently encountered at high redshift. Our results indicate that dense compact star clusters with $\Sigma \gtrsim 10^4 \, M_{\odot} \rm{pc}^{-2}$ efficiently leak LyC photons, with cloud-scale luminosity-weighted average escape fractions $\gtrsim 80\%$ as opposed to $\lesssim 10\%$ for $\Sigma \sim 100 \, M_{\odot} \rm{pc}^{-2}$. This occurs due to higher star formation efficiencies and shorter dynamical timescales at higher $\Sigma$; the former results in higher intrinsic LyC emission, and the latter implies rapid evolution, with a burst of star formation followed by rapid gas dispersal, permitting high LyC escape well before the intrinsic LyC emission of stellar populations drop ($\sim 4 \, \mathrm{Myr}$). LyC escape in dense clouds is primarily facilitated by highly ionized outflows driven by radiation pressure on dust with velocities $ \sim 3$ times the cloud escape velocity. We also vary the (assumed) dust abundances ($Z_{\rm{d}}$) and find a very mild increase ($\sim 10%$) in the escape fraction for $\sim 100$ lower $Z_{\mathrm{d}}$. Our results suggest a scenario in which localized compact bursts of star formation in galaxies are disproportionately productive sites of LyC leakage., Comment: 21 pages, 10 figures. Submitted to ApJ. Comments welcome!

Molecular clouds (MCs) are the birthplaces of new stars in galaxies. A key component of MCs are photodissociation regions (PDRs), where far-ultraviolet radiation plays a crucial role in determining the gas's physical and chemical state. Traditional PDR models assume chemical steady state (CSS), where the rates of H$_2$ formation and photodissociation are balanced. However, real MCs are dynamic and can be out of CSS. In this study, we demonstrate that combining H$_2$ emission lines observed in the far-ultraviolet or infrared with column density observations can be used to derive the rates of H$_2$ formation and photodissociation. We derive analytical formulae that relate these rates to observable quantities, which we validate using synthetic H$_2$ line emission maps derived from the SILCC-Zoom hydrodynamical simulation. Our method estimates integrated H$_2$ formation and dissociation rates to within 29\% accuracy. Our simulations cover a wide dynamic range in H$_2$ formation and photodissociation rates, showing significant deviations from CSS, with 74\% of the MC's mass deviating from CSS by a factor greater than 2. Our analytical formulae can effectively distinguish between regions in and out of CSS. When applied to actual H$_2$ line observations, our method can assess the chemical state of MCs, providing insights into their evolutionary stages and lifetimes., Comment: Submitted to ApJ. **Comments Welcome!** This paper is the first ("Paper-I") in 2-paper series. Paper II, entitled "The Molecular Cloud Lifecycle II: Formation and Destruction of Molecular Clouds Diagnosed via H 2 Fluorescent Emission Emission" by Burkhart et al has been recently accepted for publication in ApJ, and may be found here: arXiv:2402.01587

We present an investigation of clustered stellar feedback in the form of superbubbles identified within eleven galaxies from the FIRE-2 (Feedback in Realistic Environments) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite, at both cosmic noon (1 < z < 3) and in the local Universe. We study the spatially-resolved multiphase outflows that these supernovae drive, comparing our findings with recent theory and observations. These simulations consist of five LMC-mass galaxies and six Milky Way-mass progenitors (with a minimum baryonic particle mass of $m_{b.min} = 7100 M_{\odot}$), for which we calculate the local mass and energy loading factors on 750~pc scales from the identified outflows. We also characterize the multiphase morphology and properties of the identified superbubbles, including the `shell' of cool ($T<10^5$ K) gas and break out of energetic hot ($T>10^5$ K) gas when the shell bursts. For all galaxies, the outflow mass, momentum, and energy fluxes appear to reach their peak during the identified superbubbles, and we investigate the effects on the interstellar medium (ISM), circumgalactic medium (CGM), and subsequent star formation rates. We find that these simulations, regardless of redshift, have mass-loading factors and momentum fluxes in the cool gas that largely agree with recent observations. Lastly, we also investigate how methodological choices in measuring outflows can affect loading factors for galactic winds.

We investigate the contribution of host galaxies to the overall Dispersion Measures (DMs) for Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs) using the Feedback in Realistic Environments (FIRE-2) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite. We calculate DMs from every star particle in the simulated L* galaxies by ray-tracing through their multi-phase interstellar medium (ISM), summing the line-of-sight free thermal electron column for all gas elements within $\pm$20 kpc of the galactic mid-plane. At $z=0$, we find average (median) host-galaxy DMs of 74 (43) and 210 (94) pc cm$^{-3}$ for older ($\gtrsim$10 Myr) and younger ($\lesssim$10 Myr) stellar populations, respectively. Inclination raises the median DM measured for older populations ($\gtrsim$10 Myr) in the simulations by a factor of $\sim$2, but generally does not affect the younger stars deeply embedded in H{\small II} regions except in extreme edge-on cases (inclination $\gtrsim 85^\circ$). In kinematically disturbed snapshots ($z = 1$ in FIRE), the average (median) host-galaxy DMs are higher: 80 (107) and 266 (795) pc cm$^{-3}$ for older ($\gtrsim$10 Myr) and younger ($\lesssim$10 Myr) stellar populations, respectively. FIRE galaxies tend to have higher DM values than cosmological simulations such as IllustrisTNG\rev{, with larger tails in their distributions to high DMs}. As a result, FRB host galaxies may be closer (lower redshift) than previously inferred. Furthermore, constraining host-galaxy DM distributions may help significantly constrain FRB progenitor models., Comment: 20 pages, 13 figures, accepted to ApJ Letters. Updated with revised, accepted version of manuscript

At high redshifts ($z\gtrsim12$), the relative velocity between baryons and dark matter (the so-called streaming velocity) significantly affects star formation in low-mass objects. Streaming substantially reduces the abundance of low-mass gas objects while simultaneously allowing for the formation of supersonically-induced gas objects (SIGOs) and their associated star clusters outside of dark matter halos. Here, we present a study of the population-level effects of streaming on star formation within both halos and SIGOs in a set of simulations with and without streaming. Notably, we find that streaming actually enhances star formation within individual halos of all masses at redshifts between $z=12$ and $z=20$. This is demonstrated both as an increased star formation rate per object as well as an enhancement of the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation for objects with streaming. We find that our simulations are consistent with some observations at high redshift, but on a population level, they continue to under-predict star formation relative to the majority of observations. Notably, our simulations do not include feedback, and so can be taken as an upper limit on the star formation rate, exacerbating these differences. However, simulations of overdense regions (both with and without streaming) agree with observations, suggesting a strategy for extracting information about the overdensity and streaming velocity in a given survey volume in future observations., Comment: 16 pages, 8 figures

The observed rest-UV luminosity function at cosmic dawn ($z \sim 8-14$) measured by JWST revealed an excess of UV-luminous galaxies relative to many pre-launch theoretical predictions. A high star-formation efficiency (SFE) and a top-heavy initial mass function (IMF) are among the mechanisms proposed for explaining this excess. Although a top-heavy IMF has been proposed for its ability to increase the light-to-mass ratio (\(\Psi_{\mathrm{UV}}\)), the resulting enhanced radiative pressure from young stars could decrease the star formation efficiency (SFE), potentially driving galaxy luminosities back down. In this Letter, we use idealized radiation hydrodynamic simulations of star cluster formation to explore the effects of a top-heavy IMF on the SFE of clouds typical of the high pressure conditions found at these redshifts. We find that the SFE in star clusters with solar neighbourhood-like dust abundance decreases with increasingly top-heavy IMF's -- by $\sim 20 \%$ for an increase of factor 4 in $\Psi_{\mathrm{UV}}$, and by $50 \%$ for a factor $ \sim 10$ in $\Psi_{\mathrm{UV}}$. However, we find that an expected decrease in the dust-to-gas ratio ($\sim 0.01 \times \mathrm{Solar}$) at these redshifts can completely compensate for the enhanced light output. This leads to a (cloud-scale; $\sim 10 \, \mathrm{pc}$) SFE that is $\gtrsim 70\%$ even for a factor 10 increase in $\Psi_{\mathrm{UV}}$, implying that highly efficient star formation is unavoidable for high surface density and low metallicity conditions. Our results suggest that a top-heavy IMF, if present, likely coexists with efficient star formation in these galaxies., Comment: 12 pages, 4 figures. Accepted to the Astrophysical Journal Letters

Molecular hydrogen (H$_2$) formation and dissociation are key processes that drive the gas lifecycle in galaxies. Using the SImulating the LifeCycle of Molecular Clouds (SILCC) zoom-in simulation suite, we explore the utility of future observations of H$_2$ dissociation and formation for tracking the lifecycle of molecular clouds. The simulations used in this work include non-equilibrium H$_2$ formation, stellar radiation, sink particles, and turbulence. We find that, at early times in the cloud evolution, H$_2$ formation rapidly outpaces dissociation and molecular clouds build their mass from the atomic reservoir in their environment. Rapid H$_2$ formation is also associated with a higher early star formation rate. For the clouds studied here, H$_2$ is strongly out of chemical equilibrium during the early stages of cloud formation but settles into a bursty chemical steady-state about 2 Myrs after the first stars form. At the latest stage of cloud evolution, dissociation outweighs formation and the clouds enter a dispersal phase. We discuss how theories for the molecular cloud lifecycle and the star formation efficiency may be distinguished with observational measurements of H$_2$ fluorescence with a space-based high-resolution FUV spectrometer, such as the proposed Hyperion and Eos NASA Explorer missions. Such missions would enable measurements of the H$_2$ dissociation and formation rates, which we demonstrate can be connected to different phases in a molecular cloud's star-forming life, including cloud building, rapidly star-forming, H$_2$ chemical equilibrium, and cloud destruction., Comment: Submitted to ApJ, comments welcome

In cosmology, the quest for primordial $B$-modes in cosmic microwave background (CMB) observations has highlighted the critical need for a refined model of the Galactic dust foreground. We investigate diffusion-based modeling of the dust foreground and its interest for component separation. Under the assumption of a Gaussian CMB with known cosmology (or covariance matrix), we show that diffusion models can be trained on examples of dust emission maps such that their sampling process directly coincides with posterior sampling in the context of component separation. We illustrate this on simulated mixtures of dust emission and CMB. We show that common summary statistics (power spectrum, Minkowski functionals) of the components are well recovered by this process. We also introduce a model conditioned by the CMB cosmology that outperforms models trained using a single cosmology on component separation. Such a model will be used in future work for diffusion-based cosmological inference., Comment: 5+6 pages, 2+3 figures, accepted at the NeurIPS 2023 workshop on "Machine Learning and the Physical Sciences" and selected for a spotlight talk

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is capable of probing extremely early eras of our Universe when the supersonic relative motions between dark matter and baryonic overdensities modulate structure formation ($z>\sim 10$). We study low-mass galaxy formation including this "stream velocity" using high resolution AREPO hydrodynamics simulations, and present theoretical predictions of the UV luminosity function (UVLF) and galaxy stellar mass function (GSMF) down to extremely faint and low mass galaxies ($M_{UV}>\sim-15$, $10^4M_\odot<=M_*<=10^8 M_\odot)$. We show that, although the stream velocity suppresses early star formation overall, it induces a short period of rapid star formation in some larger dwarfs, leading to an enhancement in the faint-end of the UVLF at $z=12$. We demonstrate that JWST observations are close to this enhanced regime, and propose that the UVLF may constitute an important probe of the stream velocity at high redshift for JWST and future observatories., Comment: 13 pages, 7 figures. Accepted ApJL

In this paper, we investigate the conditions for the HI-to-H$_{2}$ transition in the solar neighborhood by analyzing HI emission and absorption measurements toward 58 Galactic lines of sight (LOSs) along with $^{12}$CO(1$-$0) (CO) and dust data. Based on the accurate column densities of the cold and warm neutral medium (CNM and WNM), we first perform a decomposition of gas into atomic and molecular phases and show that the observed LOSs are mostly HI-dominated. In addition, we find that the CO-dark H$_{2}$, not the optically thick HI, is a major ingredient of the dark gas in the solar neighborhood. To examine the conditions for the formation of CO-bright molecular gas, we analyze the kinematic association between HI and CO and find that the CNM is kinematically more closely associated with CO than the WNM. When CNM components within CO line widths are isolated, we find the following characteristics: spin temperature $<$ 200 K, peak optical depth $>$ 0.1, CNM fraction of $\sim$0.6, and $V$-band dust extinction $>$ 0.5 mag. These results suggest that CO-bright molecular gas preferentially forms in environments with high column densities where the CNM becomes colder and more abundant. Finally, we confront the observed CNM properties with the steady-state H$_{2}$ formation model of Sternberg et al. and infer that the CNM must be clumpy with a small volume filling factor. Another possibility would be that missing processes in the model, such as cosmic-rays and gas dynamics, play an important role in the HI-to-H$_{2}$ transition., Comment: 25 pages, 12 figures, 6 tables, Accepted for publication in ApJ

We explore the role of galactic feedback on the low redshift Lyman-$\alpha$ (Ly$\alpha$)~forest ($z \lesssim 2$) statistics and its potential to alter the thermal state of the intergalactic medium. Using the Cosmology and Astrophysics with Machine Learning Simulations (CAMELS) suite, we explore variations of the AGN and stellar feedback models in the IllustrisTNG and Simba sub-grid models. We find that both AGN and stellar feedback in Simba play a role in setting the Ly$\alpha$ forest column density distribution function (CDD) and the Doppler width ($b$-value) distribution. The Simba AGN jet feedback mode is able to efficiently transport energy out to the diffuse IGM causing changes in the shape and normalization of the CDD and a broadening of the $b$-value distribution. We find that stellar feedback plays a prominent role in regulating supermassive black hole growth and feedback, highlighting the importance of constraining stellar and AGN feedback simultaneously. In IllustrisTNG, the AGN feedback variations explored in CAMELS do not affect the Ly$\alpha$ forest, but varying the stellar feedback model does produce subtle changes. Our results imply that the low-$z$ Ly$\alpha$ forest can be sensitive to changes in the ultraviolet background (UVB), stellar and black hole feedback, and that AGN jet feedback in particular can have a strong effect on the thermal state of the IGM., Comment: 27 pages, 12 figures, 2 tables, accepted to ApJ

Advancing our understanding of astrophysical turbulence is bottlenecked by the limited resolution of numerical simulations that may not fully sample scales in the inertial range. Machine learning (ML) techniques have demonstrated promise in up-scaling resolution in both image analysis and numerical simulations (i.e., superresolution). Here we employ and further develop a physics-constrained convolutional neural network (CNN) ML model called "MeshFreeFlowNet'' (MFFN) for superresolution studies of turbulent systems. The model is trained both on the simulation images as well as the evaluated PDEs, making it sensitive to the underlying physics of a particular fluid system. We develop a framework for 2D turbulent Rayleigh-B\'enard convection (RBC) generated with the \textsc{Dedalus} code by modifying the MFFN architecture to include the full set of simulation PDEs and the boundary conditions. Our training set includes fully developed turbulence sampling Rayleigh numbers ($Ra$) of $Ra=10^6-10^{10}$. We evaluate the success of the learned simulations by comparing the power spectra of the direct \textsc{Dedalus} simulation to the predicted model output, and compare both ground truth and predicted power spectral inertial range scalings to theoretical predictions. We find that the updated network performs well at all $Ra$ studied here in recovering large-scale information, including the inertial range slopes. The superresolution prediction is overly dissipative at smaller scales than that of the inertial range in all cases, but the smaller-scales are better recovered in more turbulent, than laminar, regimes. This is likely because more turbulent systems have a rich variety of structures at many length scales compared to laminar flows., Comment: 11 pages, 10 figures

The formation mechanism of globular clusters (GCs) has long been debated by astronomers. It was recently proposed that Supersonically Induced Gas Objects (SIGOs), which formed in the early Universe due to the supersonic relative motion of baryons and dark matter at recombination, could be the progenitors of early globular clusters. In order to become GCs, SIGOs must form stars relatively efficiently despite forming outside of dark matter halos. We investigate the potential for star formation in SIGOs using cosmological hydrodynamic simulations, including the aforementioned relative motions of baryons and dark matter, molecular hydrogen cooling in primordial gas clouds, and including explicit star formation. We find that SIGOs do form stars and that the nascent star clusters formed through this process are accreted by dark matter halos on short timescales (a few hundreds of Myr). Thus, SIGOs may be found as intact substructures within these halos, analogous to many present-day GCs. From this result, we conclude that SIGOs are capable of forming star clusters with similar properties to globular clusters in the early Universe and we discuss their detectablity by upcoming JWST surveys., Comment: 12 pages, 5 figures

We use a suite of 3D simulations of star-forming molecular clouds, with and without stellar feedback and magnetic fields, to investigate the effectiveness of different fitting methods for volume and column density probability distribution functions (PDFs). The first method fits a piecewise lognormal and power-law (PL) function to recover PDF parameters such as the PL slope and transition density. The second method fits a polynomial spline function and examines the first and second derivatives of the spline to determine the PL slope and the functional transition density. We demonstrate that fitting a spline allows us to directly determine if the data has multiple PL slopes. The first PL (set by the transition between lognormal and PL function) can also be visualized in the derivatives directly. In general, the two methods produce fits that agree reasonably well for volume density but vary for column density, likely due to the increased statistical noise in column density maps as compared to volume density. We test a well-known conversion for estimating volume density PL slopes from column density slopes and find that the spline method produces a better match (\c{hi}2 of 2.38 vs \c{hi}2 of 5.92), albeit with a significant scatter. Ultimately, we recommend the use of both fitting methods on column density data to mitigate the effects of noise., Comment: 14 pages, 8 figures, Submitted to ApJ. Comments welcome

An unprecedented array of new observational capabilities are starting to yield key constraints on models of the epoch of first light in the Universe. In this Letter we discuss the implications of the UV radiation background at cosmic dawn inferred by recent JWST observations for radio experiments aimed at detecting the redshifted 21-cm hyperfine transition of diffuse neutral hydrogen. Under the basic assumption that the 21-cm signal is activated by the Ly$\alpha$ photon field produced by metal-poor stellar systems, we show that a detection at the low frequencies of the EDGES and SARAS3 experiments may be expected from a simple extrapolation of the declining UV luminosity density inferred at $z\lesssim 14$ from JWST early galaxy data. Accounting for an early radiation excess above the CMB suggests a shallower or flat evolution to simultaneously reproduce low and high-$z$ current UV luminosity density constraints, which cannot be entirely ruled out, given the large uncertainties from cosmic variance and the faint-end slope of the galaxy luminosity function at cosmic dawn. Our findings raise the intriguing possibility that a high star formation efficiency at early times may trigger the onset of intense Ly$\alpha$ emission at redshift $z\lesssim 20$ and produce a cosmic 21-cm absorption signal 200 Myr after the Big Bang., Comment: 8 pages, 3 figures, accepted to ApJL

We employ the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE-2) physics model to study how the properties of giant molecular clouds (GMCs) evolve during galaxy mergers. We conduct a pixel-by-pixel analysis of molecular gas properties in both the simulated control galaxies and galaxy major mergers. The simulated GMC-pixels in the control galaxies follow a similar trend in a diagram of velocity dispersion ($\sigma_v$) versus gas surface density ($\Sigma_{\mathrm{mol}}$) to the one observed in local spiral galaxies in the Physics at High Angular resolution in Nearby GalaxieS (PHANGS) survey. For GMC-pixels in simulated mergers, we see a significant increase of factor of 5 - 10 in both $\Sigma_{\mathrm{mol}}$ and $\sigma_v$, which puts these pixels above the trend of PHANGS galaxies in the $\sigma_v$ vs $\Sigma_{\mathrm{mol}}$ diagram. This deviation may indicate that GMCs in the simulated mergers are much less gravitationally bound compared with simulated control galaxies with virial parameter ($\alpha_{\mathrm{vir}}$) reaching 10 - 100. Furthermore, we find that the increase in $\alpha_{\mathrm{vir}}$ happens at the same time as the increase in global star formation rate (SFR), which suggests stellar feedback is responsible for dispersing the gas. We also find that the gas depletion time is significantly lower for high $\alpha_{\mathrm{vir}}$ GMCs during a starburst event. This is in contrast to the simple physical picture that low $\alpha_{\mathrm{vir}}$ GMCs are easier to collapse and form stars on shorter depletion times. This might suggest that some other physical mechanisms besides self-gravity are helping the GMCs in starbursting mergers collapse and form stars., Comment: 22 pages, 11 figures. Accepted to ApJ. Link to animation updated

We use a suite of 3D simulations of star-forming molecular clouds, with and without stellar feedback, magnetic fields, and driven turbulence, to study the compression and expansion rates of the gas as functions of density. We show that, around the mean density, supersonic turbulence promotes rough equilibrium between the amounts of compressing and expanding gas, consistent with continuous gas cycling between high and low density states. We find that the inclusion of protostellar jets produces rapidly expanding and compressing low-density gas. We find that the gas mass flux peaks at the transition between the lognormal and power-law forms of the density probability distribution function (PDF). This is consistent with the transition density tracking the post-shock density, which promotes an enhancement of mass at this density (i.e., shock compression and filament formation). At high densities, the gas dynamics are dominated by self-gravity: the compression rate in all of our runs matches the rate of the run with only gravity, suggesting that processes other than self-gravity have little effect at these densities. The net gas mass flux becomes constant at a density below the sink formation threshold, where it equals the star formation rate. The density at which the net gas mass flux equals the star formation rate is one order of magnitude lower than our sink threshold density, corresponds to the formation of the second power-law tail in the density PDF, and sets the overall star formation rates of these simulations., Comment: 22 pages, 13 figures. Submitted to ApJ. Comments welcome

Arkenstone is a new model for multiphase, stellar feedback driven galactic winds designed for inclusion in coarse resolution cosmological simulations. In this first paper of a series, we describe the features that allow Arkenstone to properly treat high specific energy wind components and demonstrate them using idealised non-cosmological simulations of a galaxy with a realistic CGM, using the Arepo code. Hot, fast gas phases with low mass loadings are predicted to dominate the energy content of multiphase outflows. In order to treat the huge dynamic range of spatial scales involved in cosmological galaxy formation at feasible computational expense, cosmological volume simulations typically employ a Lagrangian code or else use adaptive mesh refinement with a quasi-Lagrangian refinement strategy. However, it is difficult to inject a high specific energy wind in a Lagrangian scheme without incurring artificial burstiness. Additionally, the low densities inherent to this type of flow result in poor spatial resolution. Arkenstone addresses these issues with a novel scheme for coupling energy into the ISM/CGM transition region which also provides the necessary level of refinement at the base of the wind. In the absence of our improvements, we show that poor spatial resolution near the sonic point of a hot, fast outflow leads to an underestimation of gas acceleration as the wind propagates. We explore the different mechanisms by which low and high specific energy winds can regulate the SFR of galaxies. In future work, we will demonstrate other aspects of the Arkenstone model., Comment: Published MNRAS, 27 pages, 17 figures; updated for consistency with journal version

We present Hyperion, a mission concept recently proposed to the December 2021 NASA Medium Explorer announcement of opportunity. Hyperion explores the formation and destruction of molecular clouds and planet-forming disks in nearby star-forming regions of the Milky Way. It does this using long-slit, high-resolution spectroscopy of emission from fluorescing molecular hydrogen, which is a powerful far-ultraviolet (FUV) diagnostic. Molecular hydrogen (H2) is the most abundant molecule in the universe and a key ingredient for star and planet formation, but is typically not observed directly because its symmetric atomic structure and lack of a dipole moment mean there are no spectral lines at visible wavelengths and few in the infrared. Hyperion uses molecular hydrogen's wealth of FUV emission lines to achieve three science objectives: (1) determining how star formation is related to molecular hydrogen formation and destruction at the boundaries of molecular clouds; (2) determining how quickly and by what process massive star feedback disperses molecular clouds; and (3) determining the mechanism driving the evolution of planet-forming disks around young solar-analog stars. Hyperion conducts this science using a straightforward, highly-efficient, single-channel instrument design. Hyperion's instrument consists of a 48 cm primary mirror, with an f/5 focal ratio. The spectrometer has two modes, both covering 138.5-161.5 nm bandpasses. A low resolution mode has a spectral resolution of R>10,000 with a slit length of 65 arcmin, while the high resolution mode has a spectral resolution of R>50,000 over a slit length of 5 armin. Hyperion occupies a 2 week long, high-earth, Lunar resonance TESS-like orbit, and conducts 2 weeks of planned observations per orbit, with time for downlinks and calibrations. Hyperion was reviewed as Category I, which is the highest rating possible, but was not selected., Comment: Accepted to JATIS, 9 Figures

Known as the "Missing Baryon Problem", about one-third of baryons in the local universe remain unaccounted for. The missing baryons are thought to reside in the warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) of the cosmic web filaments, which are challenging to detect. Recent Chandra X-ray observations used a novel stacking analysis and detected an OVII absorption line toward the sightline of a luminous quasar, hinting that the missing baryons may reside in the WHIM. To explore how the properties of the OVII absorption line depend on feedback physics, we compare the observational results with predictions obtained from the Cosmology and Astrophysics with MachinE Learning (CAMEL) Simulation suite. CAMELS consists of cosmological simulations with state-of-the-art supernova (SN) and active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback models from the IllustrisTNG and SIMBA simulations, with varying strengths. We find that the simulated OVII column densities are higher in the outskirts of galaxies than in the large-scale WHIM, but they are consistently lower than those obtained in the Chandra observations, for all feedback runs. We establish that the OVII distribution is primarily sensitive to changes in the SN feedback prescription, whereas changes in the AGN feedback prescription have minimal impact. We also find significant differences in the OVII column densities between the IllustrisTNG and SIMBA runs. We conclude that the tension between the observed and simulated OVII column densities cannot be explained by the wide range of feedback models implemented in CAMELS., Comment: 11 pages, 9 figures. Matching to the published version on MNRAS

Feedback driven by jets from active galactic nuclei is believed to be responsible for reducing cooling flows in cool-core galaxy clusters. We use simulations to model feedback from hydrodynamic jets in isolated halos. While the jet propagation converges only after the diameter of the jet is well resolved, reliable predictions about the effects these jets have on the cooling time distribution function only require resolutions sufficient to keep the jet-inflated cavities stable. Comparing different model variations, as well as an independent jet model using a different hydrodynamics code, we show that the dominant uncertainties are the choices of jet properties within a given model. Independent of implementation, we find that light, thermal jets with low momentum flux tend to delay the onset of a cooling flow more efficiently on a $50$ Myr timescale than heavy, kinetic jets. The delay of the cooling flow originates from a displacement and boost in entropy of the central gas. If the jet kinetic luminosity depends on accretion rate, collimated, light, hydrodynamic jets are able to reduce cooling flows in halos, without a need for jet precession or wide opening angles. Comparing the jet feedback with a `kinetic wind' implementation shows that equal amounts of star formation rate reduction can be achieved by different interactions with the halo gas: the jet has a larger effect on the hot halo gas while leaving the denser, star forming phase in place, while the wind acts more locally on the star forming phase, which manifests itself in different time-variability properties., Comment: 22 pages, 20 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS, comments welcome

The mass distribution of dense cores is a potential key to understand the process of star formation. Applying dendrogram analysis to the CARMA-NRO Orion C$^{18}$O ($J$=1--0) data, we identify 2342 dense cores, about 22 \% of which have virial ratios smaller than 2, and can be classified as gravitationally bound cores. The derived core mass function (CMF) for bound starless cores which are not associate with protostars has a slope similar to Salpeter's initial mass function (IMF) for the mass range above 1 $M_\odot$, with a peak at $\sim$ 0.1 $M_\odot$. We divide the cloud into four parts based on the declination, OMC-1/2/3, OMC-4/5, L1641N/V380 Ori, and L1641C, and derive the CMFs in these regions. We find that starless cores with masses greater than 10 $M_\odot$ exist only in OMC-1/2/3, whereas the CMFs in OMC-4/5, L1641N, and L1641C are truncated at around 5--10 $M_\odot$. From the number ratio of bound starless cores and Class II objects in each subregion, the lifetime of bound starless cores is estimated to be 5--30 free-fall times, consistent with previous studies for other regions. In addition, we discuss core growth by mass accretion from the surrounding cloud material to explain the coincidence of peak masses between IMFs and CMFs. The mass accretion rate required for doubling the core mass within a core lifetime is larger than that of Bondi-Hoyle accretion by a factor of order 2. This implies that more dynamical accretion processes are required to grow cores., Comment: 58 pages, 33 figures, 21 tables, accepted by ApJS

A supersonic relative velocity between dark matter (DM) and baryons (the stream velocity) at the time of recombination induces the formation of low mass objects with anomalous properties in the early Universe. We widen the scope of the `Supersonic Project' paper series to include objects we term Dark Matter + Gas Halos Offset by Streaming (DM GHOSts)--diffuse, DM-enriched structures formed because of a physical offset between the centers of mass of DM and baryonic overdensities. We present an updated numerical investigation of DM GHOSts and Supersonically Induced Gas Objects (SIGOs), including the effects of molecular cooling, in high resolution hydrodynamic simulations using the AREPO code. Supplemented by an analytical understanding of their ellipsoidal gravitational potentials, we study the population-level properties of these objects, characterizing their morphology, spin, radial mass, and velocity distributions in comparison to classical structures in non-streaming regions. The stream velocity causes deviations from sphericity in both the gas and DM components and lends greater rotational support to the gas. Low mass ($<\sim 10^{5.5}$ M$_\odot$) objects in regions of streaming demonstrate core-like rotation and mass profiles. Anomalies in the rotation and morphology of DM GHOSts could represent an early Universe analogue to observed ultra-faint dwarf galaxies with variations in DM content and unusual rotation curves., Comment: 27 pages, 20 figures. Accepted ApJ

Active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback models are generally calibrated to reproduce galaxy observables such as the stellar mass function and the bimodality in galaxy colors. We use variations of the AGN feedback implementations in the IllustrisTNG (TNG) and Simba cosmological hydrodynamic simulations to show that the low redshift Lyman-$\alpha$ forest can provide constraints on the impact of AGN feedback. We show that TNG over-predicts the number density of absorbers at column densities $N_{\rm HI} < 10^{14}$ cm$^{-2}$ compared to data from the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (in agreement with previous work), and we demonstrate explicitly that its kinetic feedback mode, which is primarily responsible for galaxy quenching, has a negligible impact on the column density distribution (CDD) of absorbers. In contrast, we show that the fiducial Simba model which includes AGN jet feedback is the preferred fit to the observed CDD of the $z = 0.1$ Lyman-$\alpha$ forest across five orders of magnitude in column density. We show that the Simba results with jets produce a quantitatively better fit to the observational data than the Simba results without jets, even when the UVB is left as a free parameter. AGN jets in Simba are high speed, collimated, weakly-interacting with the interstellar medium (via brief hydrodynamic decoupling) and heated to the halo virial temperature. Collectively these properties result in stronger long-range impacts on the IGM when compared to TNG's kinetic feedback mode, which drives isotropic winds with lower velocities at the galactic radius. Our results suggest that the low redshift Lyman-$\alpha$ forest provides plausible evidence for long-range AGN jet feedback., Comment: 15 pages, 5 figures, 1 table, accepted to ApJL

We examine the azimuthal variations in gas-phase metallicity profiles in simulated Milky Way mass disk galaxies from the Feedback in Realistic Environments (FIRE-2) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite, which includes a sub-grid turbulent metal mixing model. We produce spatially resolved maps of the disks at $z \approx 0$ with pixel sizes ranging from 250 to 750~pc, analogous to modern integral field unit (IFU) galaxy surveys, mapping the gas-phase metallicities in both the cold & dense gas and the ionized gas correlated with HII regions. We report that the spiral arms alternate in a pattern of metal rich and metal poor relative to the median metallicity on the order of $\lesssim 0.1$~dex, appearing generally in this sample of flocculent spirals. The pattern persists even in a simulation with different strengths of metal mixing, indicating that the pattern emerges from physics above the sub-grid scale. Local enrichment does not appear to be the dominant source of the azimuthal metallicity variations at $z \approx 0$: there is no correlation with local star formation on these spatial scales. Rather, the arms are moving inwards and outwards relative to each other, carrying their local metallicity gradients with them radially before mixing into the larger-scale interstellar medium. We propose that the arms act as freeways channeling relatively metal poor gas radially inwards, and relatively enriched gas radially outwards., Comment: 16 Pages, 14 Figures, submitted to MNRAS

We present a suite of high-resolution simulations of an isolated dwarf galaxy using four different hydrodynamical codes: {\sc Gizmo}, {\sc Arepo}, {\sc Gadget}, and {\sc Ramses}. All codes adopt the same physical model which includes radiative cooling, photoelectric heating, star formation, and supernova (SN) feedback. Individual SN explosions are directly resolved without resorting to sub-grid models, eliminating one of the major uncertainties in cosmological simulations. We find reasonable agreement on the time-averaged star formation rates as well as the joint density-temperature distributions between all codes. However, the Lagrangian codes show significantly burstier star formation, larger supernova-driven bubbles, and stronger galactic outflows compared to the Eulerian code. This is caused by the behavior in the dense, collapsing gas clouds when the Jeans length becomes unresolved: gas in Lagrangian codes collapses to much higher densities than in Eulerian codes, as the latter is stabilized by the minimal cell size. Therefore, more of the gas cloud is converted to stars and SNe are much more clustered in the Lagrangian models, amplifying their dynamical impact. The differences between Lagrangian and Eulerian codes can be reduced by adopting a higher star formation efficiency in Eulerian codes, which significantly enhances SN clustering in the latter. Adopting a zero SN delay time reduces burstiness in all codes, resulting in vanishing outflows as SN clustering is suppressed., Comment: accepted version by ApJ (including a new simulation in Appendix B suggested by the referee)

Supersonically Induced Gas Objects (SIGOs) are a class of early Universe objects that have gained attention as a potential formation route for globular clusters. SIGOs have only recently begun to be studied in the context of molecular hydrogen cooling, which is key to characterizing their structure and evolution. Studying the population-level properties of SIGOs with molecular cooling is important for understanding their potential for collapse and star formation, and central for addressing whether SIGOs can survive to the present epoch. Here, we investigate the evolution of SIGOs before they form stars, using a combination of numerical and analytical analysis. For example, we study various timescales important to the evolution of SIGOs at a population level in the presence of molecular cooling. Revising the previous formulation for the critical density of collapse for SIGOs allows us to show that their prolateness tends to act as an inhibiting factor to collapse. We find that simulated SIGOs are limited by artificial two-body relaxation effects that tend to disperse them, an effect of their limited resolution. We expect that SIGOs in nature will be longer-lived compared to our simulations. Further, the fall-back timescale on which SIGOs fall into nearby dark matter halos, potentially producing a globular-cluster-like system, is frequently longer than their cooling timescale and the collapse timescale on which they shrink through gravity. Therefore, some SIGOs have time to cool and collapse outside of halos despite initially failing to exceed the critical density, even without considering metal line cooling. From this analysis we conclude that SIGOs should form stars outside of halos in non-negligible stream velocity patches in the Universe., Comment: 18 pages, 11 figures

About ten to 20 percent of massive stars may be kicked out of their natal clusters before exploding as supernovae. These "runaway stars" might play a crucial role in driving galactic outflows and enriching the circumgalactic medium with metals. To study this effect, we carry out high resolution dwarf galaxy simulations that include velocity kicks to massive O/B stars above 8 M$_{\odot}$. We consider two scenarios, one that adopts a power law velocity distribution for kick velocities, resulting in more stars with high velocity kicks, and a more moderate scenario with a Maxwellian velocity distribution. We explicitly resolve the multi-phase interstellar medium (ISM), and include non-equilibrium cooling and chemistry channels. We adopt a resolved feedback scheme (\textsc{Griffin}) where we sample individual massive stars from an IMF. We follow the lifetime of these stars and add their photoionising radiation, their UV radiation field, and their photoelectric heating rate to the surrounding gas. At the end of their lifetime we explode the massive population as core collapse supernovae (CCSN). In the simulations with runaway massive stars, we add additional (natal) velocity kicks that mimic two and three body interactions that cannot be fully resolved in our simulations. We find that the inclusion of runaway or walkaway star scenarios has an impact on mass, metal, momentum and energy outflows as well as the respective loading factors. We find an increase in mass, metal and momentum loading by a factor of 2-3, whereas we find an increase in the mean energy loading by a factor of 5 in the runaway case and a factor of 3 in the walkaway case. However, we find that the peak values are increased by a factor of up to 10, independent of the adopted velocity kick model. We conclude that the inclusion of runaway stars could have a significant impact on the global outflow properties of dwarf galaxies., Comment: 18 pages, 13 Figures, 3 tables, submitted to MNRAS, comments welcome :-)

We study the sensitivity of the $z=0.1$ Lyman-$\alpha$ Forest observables, such as the column density distribution function (CDD), flux PDF, flux power spectrum, and line width distribution, to sub-grid models of active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback using the Illustris and IllustrisTNG (TNG) cosmological simulations. The two simulations share an identical Ultraviolet Background (UVB) prescription and similar cosmological parameters, but TNG features an entirely reworked AGN feedback model. Due to changes in the AGN radio mode model, the original Illustris simulations have a factor of 2-3 fewer Lyman-$\alpha$ absorbers than TNG at column densities $N_{\rm HI}< 10^{15.5}$ cm$^{-2}$. We compare the simulated forest statistics to UV data from the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) and find that neither simulation can reproduce the slope of the absorber distribution. Both Illustris and TNG also produce significantly smaller line width distributions than observed in the COS data. We show that TNG is in much better agreement with the observed $z=0.1$ flux power spectrum than Illustris. We explore which statistics can disentangle the effects of AGN feedback from alternative UVB models by rescaling the UVB of Illustris to produce a CDD match to TNG. While this UVB rescaling is degenerate with the effect of AGN feedback on the CDD, the amplitude and shape of the flux PDF and 1D flux power spectrum change in a way distinct from a scaling of the UVB. Our study suggests that the $z=0.1$ Lyman-$\alpha$ forest observables can be used as a diagnostic of AGN feedback models., Comment: ApJL

We present an analysis of spatially resolved gas-phase metallicity relations in five dwarf galaxies ($M_{halo} \approx 10^{11} M_\odot$, $M_\star \approx 10^{8.8}-10^{9.6} M_\odot$) from the FIRE-2 (Feedback in Realistic Environments) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite, which include an explicit model for sub-grid turbulent mixing of metals in gas, near $z\approx 0$, over a period of 1.4 Gyrs, and compare our findings with observations. While these dwarf galaxies represent a diverse sample, we find that all simulated galaxies match the observed mass-metallicity (MZR) and mass-metallicity gradient (MZGR) relations. We note that in all five galaxies, the metallicities are effectively identical between phases of the interstellar medium (ISM), with 95$\%$ being within $\pm$0.1 dex between various ISM phases, including the cold and dense gas ($T < 500$ K and $n_{\rm H} > 1$ cm$^{-3}$), ionized gas (near the H$\alpha$ $T \approx 10^4$ K ridge-line), and nebular regions (ionized gas where the 10 Myr-averaged star formation rate is non-zero). We find that most of the scatter in relative metallicity between cold and dense gas and ionized gas/nebular regions can be attributed to either local starburst events or metal-poor inflows. We also note the presence of a major merger in one of our galaxies, m11e, with a substantial impact on the metallicity distribution in the spatially resolved map, showing two strong metallicity peaks and triggering a starburst in the main galaxy., Comment: 14 pages, 10 figures, submitted to MNRAS

The driving of turbulence in galaxies is deeply connected with the physics of feedback, star formation, outflows, accretion, and radial transport in disks. The velocity dispersion of gas in galaxies therefore offers a promising observational window into these processes. However, the relative importance of each of these mechanisms remains controversial. In this work we revisit the possibility that turbulence on galactic scales is driven by the direct impact of accreting gaseous material on the disk. We measure this effect in a disk-like star-forming galaxy in IllustrisTNG, using the high-resolution cosmological magnetohydrodynamical simulation TNG50. We employ Lagrangian tracer particles with a high time cadence of only a few Myr to identify accretion and other events, such as star formation, outflows, and movement within the disk. The energies of particles as they arrive in the disk are measured by stacking the events in bins of time before and after the event. The average effect of each event is measured on the galaxy by fitting explicit models for the kinetic and turbulent energies as a function of time in the disk. These measurements are corroborated by measuring the cross-correlation of the turbulent energy in the different annuli of the disk with other time series, and searching for signals of causality, i.e. asymmetries in the cross-correlation across zero time lag. We find that accretion contributes to the large-scale turbulent kinetic energy even if it is not the dominant driver of turbulence in this $\sim 5 \times 10^{9} M_\odot$ stellar mass galaxy. Extrapolating this finding to a range of galaxy masses, we find that there are regimes where energy from direct accretion may dominate the turbulent energy budget, particularly in disk outskirts, galaxies less massive than the Milky Way, and at redshift $\sim 2$., Comment: Submitted to AAS Journals, comments welcome

We demonstrate the utility of the bispectrum, the Fourier three-point correlation function, for studying driving scales of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence in the interstellar medium. We calculate the bispectrum by implementing a parallelized Monte Carlo direct measurement method, which we have made publicly available. In previous works, the bispectrum has been used to identify non-linear scaling correlations and break degeneracies in lower-order statistics like the power spectrum. We find that the bicoherence, a related statistic which measures phase coupling of Fourier modes, identifies turbulence driving scales using density and column density fields. In particular, it shows that the driving scale is phase-coupled to scales present in the turbulent cascade. We also find that the presence of an ordered magnetic field at large-scales enhances phase coupling as compared to a pure hydrodynamic case. We therefore suggest the bispectrum and bicoherence as tools for searching for non-locality for wave interactions in MHD turbulence., Comment: 12 pages, 9 figures

The Cosmology and Astrophysics with MachinE Learning Simulations (CAMELS) project was developed to combine cosmology with astrophysics through thousands of cosmological hydrodynamic simulations and machine learning. CAMELS contains 4,233 cosmological simulations, 2,049 N-body and 2,184 state-of-the-art hydrodynamic simulations that sample a vast volume in parameter space. In this paper we present the CAMELS public data release, describing the characteristics of the CAMELS simulations and a variety of data products generated from them, including halo, subhalo, galaxy, and void catalogues, power spectra, bispectra, Lyman-$\alpha$ spectra, probability distribution functions, halo radial profiles, and X-rays photon lists. We also release over one thousand catalogues that contain billions of galaxies from CAMELS-SAM: a large collection of N-body simulations that have been combined with the Santa Cruz Semi-Analytic Model. We release all the data, comprising more than 350 terabytes and containing 143,922 snapshots, millions of halos, galaxies and summary statistics. We provide further technical details on how to access, download, read, and process the data at \url{https://camels.readthedocs.io}., Comment: 18 pages, 3 figures. More than 350 Tb of data from thousands of simulations publicly available at https://www.camel-simulations.org

Observing in six frequency bands from 27 to 280 GHz over a large sky area, the Simons Observatory (SO) is poised to address many questions in Galactic astrophysics in addition to its principal cosmological goals. In this work, we provide quantitative forecasts on astrophysical parameters of interest for a range of Galactic science cases. We find that SO can: constrain the frequency spectrum of polarized dust emission at a level of $\Delta\beta_d \lesssim 0.01$ and thus test models of dust composition that predict that $\beta_d$ in polarization differs from that measured in total intensity; measure the correlation coefficient between polarized dust and synchrotron emission with a factor of two greater precision than current constraints; exclude the non-existence of exo-Oort clouds at roughly 2.9$\sigma$ if the true fraction is similar to the detection rate of giant planets; map more than 850 molecular clouds with at least 50 independent polarization measurements at 1 pc resolution; detect or place upper limits on the polarization fractions of CO(2-1) emission and anomalous microwave emission at the 0.1% level in select regions; and measure the correlation coefficient between optical starlight polarization and microwave polarized dust emission in $1^\circ$ patches for all lines of sight with $N_{\rm H} \gtrsim 2\times10^{20}$ cm$^{-2}$. The goals and forecasts outlined here provide a roadmap for other microwave polarization experiments to expand their scientific scope via Milky Way astrophysics., Comment: Submitted to AAS journals. 33 pages, 10 figures

We present an analytic model for clustered supernovae (SNe) feedback in galaxy disks, incorporating the dynamical evolution of superbubbles formed from spatially overlapping SNe remnants. We propose two realistic outcomes for the evolution of superbubbles in galactic disks: (1) the expansion velocity of the shock front falls below the turbulent velocity dispersion of the ISM in the galaxy disk, whereupon the superbubble stalls and fragments, depositing its momentum entirely within the galaxy disk, or (2) the superbubble grows in size to reach the gas scale height, breaking out of the galaxy disk and driving galactic outflows/fountains. In either case, we find that superbubble breakup/breakout almost always occurs before the last Type-II SN ($\lesssim$40 Myr) in the recently formed star cluster, assuming a standard high-end IMF slope, and scalings between stellar lifetimes and masses. The threshold between these two cases implies a break in the effective strength of feedback in driving turbulence within galaxies, and a resulting change in the scalings of, e.g., star formation rates with gas surface density (the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation) and the star formation efficiency in galaxy disks., Comment: 24 pages, 11 figures, accepted to ApJ

We compare an analytic model for the evolution of supernova-driven superbubbles with observations of local and high-redshift galaxies, and the properties of intact HI shells in local star-forming galaxies. Our model correctly predicts the presence of superwinds in local star-forming galaxies (e.g., NGC 253) and the ubiquity of outflows near $z \sim 2$. We find that high-redshift galaxies may `capture' 20-50\% of their feedback momentum in the dense ISM (with the remainder escaping into the nearby CGM), whereas local galaxies may contain $\lesssim$10\% of their feedback momentum from the central starburst. Using azimuthally averaged galaxy properties, we predict that most superbubbles stall and fragment \emph{within} the ISM, and that this occurs at, or near, the gas scale height. We find a consistent interpretation in the observed HI bubble radii and velocities, and predict that most will fragment within the ISM, and that those able to break-out originate from short dynamical time regions (where the dynamical time is shorter than feedback timescales). Additionally, we demonstrate that models with constant star cluster formation efficiency per Toomre mass are inconsistent with the occurrence of outflows from high-$z$ starbursts and local circumnuclear regions., Comment: 10 pages, 4 figures, accepted to ApJL

Using a suite of 3D hydrodynamical simulations of star-forming molecular clouds, we investigate how the density probability distribution function (PDF) changes when including gravity, turbulence, magnetic fields, and protostellar outflows and heating. We find that the density PDF is not lognormal when outflows and self-gravity are considered. Self-gravity produces a power-law tail at high densities and the inclusion of stellar feedback from protostellar outflows and heating produces significant time-varying deviations from a lognormal distribution at the low densities. The simulation with outflows has an excess of diffuse gas compared to the simulations without outflows, exhibits increased average sonic Mach number, and maintains a slower star formation rate over the entire duration of the run. We study the mass transfer between the diffuse gas in the lognormal peak of the PDF, the collapsing gas in the power-law tail, and the stars. We find that the mass fraction in the power-law tail is constant, such that the stars form out of the power-law gas at the same rate at which the gas from the lognormal part replenishes the power-law. We find that turbulence does not provide significant support in the dense gas associated with the power-law tail. When including outflows and magnetic fields in addition to driven turbulence, the rate of mass transfer from the lognormal to the power-law, and then to the stars, becomes significantly slower, resulting in slower star formation rates and longer depletion times., Comment: 15 pages, 10 figures. Submitted to ApJ. Comments welcome

Studying the driving modes of turbulence is important for characterizing the impact of turbulence in various astrophysical environments. The driving mode of turbulence is parameterized by $b$, which relates the width of the gas density PDF to the turbulent Mach number; $b\approx 1/3$, $1$, and $0.4$ correspond to driving that is solenoidal, compressive, and a natural mixture of the two, respectively. In this work, we use high-resolution (sub-pc) ALMA $^{12}$CO ($J$ = $2-1$), $^{13}$CO ($J$ = $2-1$), and C$^{18}$O ($J$ = $2-1$) observations of filamentary molecular clouds in the star-forming region N159E (the Papillon Nebula) in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) to provide the first measurement of turbulence driving parameter in an extragalactic region. We use a non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) analysis of the CO isotopologues to construct a gas density PDF, which we find to be largely log-normal in shape with some intermittent features indicating deviations from lognormality. We find that the width of the log-normal part of the density PDF is comparable to the supersonic turbulent Mach number, resulting in $b \approx 0.9$. This implies that the driving mode of turbulence in N159E is primarily compressive. We speculate that the compressive turbulence could have been powered by gravo-turbulent fragmentation of the molecular gas, or due to compression powered by H I flows that led to the development of the molecular filaments observed by ALMA in the region. Our analysis can be easily applied to study the nature of turbulence driving in resolved star-forming regions in the local as well as the high-redshift Universe., Comment: 14 pages, 7 figures. MNRAS in press

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence is a crucial component of the current paradigms of star formation, dynamo theory, particle transport, magnetic reconnection and evolution of structure in the interstellar medium (ISM) of galaxies. Despite the importance of turbulence to astrophysical fluids, a full theoretical framework based on solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations remains intractable. Observations provide only limited line-of-sight information on densities, temperatures, velocities and magnetic field strengths and therefore directly measuring turbulence in the ISM is challenging. A statistical approach has been of great utility in allowing comparisons of observations, simulations and analytic predictions. In this review article we address the growing importance of MHD turbulence in many fields of astrophysics and review statistical diagnostics for studying interstellar and interplanetary turbulence. In particular, we will review statistical diagnostics and machine learning algorithms that have been developed for observational data sets in order to obtain information about the turbulence cascade, fluid compressibility (sonic Mach number), and magnetization of fluid (Alfv\'enic Mach number). These techniques have often been tested on numerical simulations of MHD turbulence, which may include the creation of synthetic observations, and are often formulated on theoretical expectations for compressible magnetized turbulence. We stress the use of multiple techniques, as this can provide a more accurate indication of the turbulence parameters of interest. We conclude by describing several open-source tools for the astrophysical community to use when dealing with turbulence., Comment: submitted as a review to Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific; comments welcome

Supersonically Induced Gas Objects (SIGOs), are structures with little to no dark matter component predicted to exist in regions of the Universe with large relative velocities between baryons and dark matter at the time of recombination. They have been suggested to be the progenitors of present-day globular clusters. Using simulations, SIGOs have been studied on small scales (around 2 Mpc), where these relative velocities are coherent. However, it is challenging to study SIGOs using simulations on large scales due to the varying relative velocities at scales larger than a few Mpc. Here, we study SIGO abundances semi-analytically: using perturbation theory, we predict the number density of SIGOs analytically, and compare these results to small-box numerical simulations. We use the agreement between the numerical and analytic calculations to extrapolate the large-scale variation of SIGO abundances over different stream velocities. As a result, we predict similar large-scale variations of objects with high gas densities before reionization that could possibly be observed by JWST. If indeed SIGOs are progenitors of globular clusters, then we expect a similar variation of globular cluster abundances over large scales. Significantly, we find that the expected number density of SIGOs is consistent with observed globular cluster number densities. As a proof-of-concept, and because globular clusters were proposed to be natural formation sites for gravitational wave sources from binary black hole (BBH) mergers, we show that SIGOs should imprint an anisotropy on the gravitational wave signal on the sky, consistent with SIGOs' distribution., Comment: 17 pages, 8 figures, Accepted to ApJ

Applying dendrogram analysis to the CARMA-NRO C$^{18}$O ($J$=1--0) data having an angular resolution of $\sim$ 8", we identified 692 dense cores in the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC) region. Using this core sample, we compare the core and initial stellar mass functions in the same area to quantify the step from cores to stars. About 22 \% of the identified cores are gravitationally bound. The derived core mass function (CMF) for starless cores has a slope similar to Salpeter's stellar initial mass function (IMF) for the mass range above 1 $M_\odot$, consistent with previous studies. Our CMF has a peak at a subsolar mass of $\sim$ 0.1 $M_\odot$, which is comparable to the peak mass of the IMF derived in the same area. We also find that the current star formation rate is consistent with the picture in which stars are born only from self-gravitating starless cores. However, the cores must gain additional gas from the surroundings to reproduce the current IMF (e.g., its slope and peak mass), because the core mass cannot be accreted onto the star with a 100\% efficiency. Thus, the mass accretion from the surroundings may play a crucial role in determining the final stellar masses of stars., Comment: 13 pages, 5 figures, accepted by ApJL

We present an update to the framework called SImulator of GAlaxy Millimeter/submillimeter Emission (S\'IGAME). S\'IGAME derives line emission in the far-infrared (FIR) for galaxies in particle-based cosmological hydrodynamics simulations by applying radiative transfer and physics recipes via a post-processing step after completion of the simulation. In this version, a new technique is developed to model higher gas densities by parametrizing the gas density probability distribution function (PDF) in higher resolution simulations for use as a look-up table, allowing for more adaptive PDFs than in previous work. S\'IGAME v3 is tested on redshift z = 0 galaxies drawn from the SIMBA cosmological simulation for eight FIR emission lines tracing vastly different interstellar medium phases. Including dust radiative transfer with SKIRT and high resolution photo-ionization models with Cloudy, this new method is able to self-consistently reproduce observed relations between line luminosity and star formation rate in all cases, except for [NII]122, [NII]205 and [OI]63, the luminosities of which are overestimated by median factors of 1.6, 1.2 and 1.2 dex, respectively. We attribute the remaining disagreement with observations to the lack of precise attenuation of the interstellar light on subgrid scales (<200 pc)., Comment: 31 pages, 15 figures. Accepted for publication in ApJ

We compare the star forming main sequence (SFMS) -- both integrated and resolved on 1kpc scales -- between the high-resolution TNG50 simulation of IllustrisTNG and observations from the 3D-HST slitless spectroscopic survey at z~1. Contrasting integrated star formation rates (SFRs), we find that the slope and normalization of the star-forming main sequence in TNG50 are quantitatively consistent with values derived by fitting observations from 3D-HST with the Prospector Bayesian inference framework. The previous offsets of 0.2-1dex between observed and simulated main sequence normalizations are resolved when using the updated masses and SFRs from Prospector. The scatter is generically smaller in TNG50 than in 3D-HST for more massive galaxies with M_*>10^10Msun, even after accounting for observational uncertainties. When comparing resolved star formation, we also find good agreement between TNG50 and 3D-HST: average specific star formation rate (sSFR) radial profiles of galaxies at all masses and radii below, on, and above the SFMS are similar in both normalization and shape. Most noteworthy, massive galaxies with M_*>10^10.5Msun, which have fallen below the SFMS due to ongoing quenching, exhibit a clear central SFR suppression, in both TNG50 and 3D-HST. In TNG this inside-out quenching is due to the supermassive black hole (SMBH) feedback model operating at low accretion rates. In contrast, the original Illustris simulation, without this same physical SMBH mechanism, does not reproduce the central SFR profile suppression seen in data. The observed sSFR profiles provide support for the TNG quenching mechanism and how it affects gas on kiloparsec scales in the centers of galaxies., Comment: Main results in Figs 1 and 3. The TNG50 data is now fully publicly available at https://www.tng-project.org/

Stars form inside molecular cloud filaments from the competition of gravitational forces with turbulence and magnetic fields. The exact orientation of these filaments with the magnetic fields depends on the strength of these fields, the gravitational potential, and the line-of-sight (LOS) relative to the mean field. To disentangle these effects we employ three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamical numerical simulations that explore a wide range of initial turbulent and magnetic states, i.e., sub-Alfv\'enic to super-Alfv\'enic turbulence, with and without gravity. We use histogram of relative orientation (HRO) and the associated projected Rayleigh statistics (PRS) to study the orientation of density and, in order to compare with observations, the integrated density relative to the magnetic field. We find that in sub-Alfv\'enic systems the initial coherence of the magnetic is maintained inside the cloud and filaments form perpendicular to the field. This trend is not observed in super-Alfv\'enic models, where the lines are dragged by gravity and turbulence and filaments are mainly aligned to the field. The PRS analysis of integrated maps shows that LOS effects are important only for sub-Alfv\'enic clouds. When the LOS is perpendicular to the initial field orientation most of the filaments are perpendicular to the projected magnetic field. The inclusion of gravity increases the number of dense structures perpendicular to the magnetic field, reflected as lower values of the PRS for denser regions, regardless of whether the model is sub- or super-Alfv\'enic. The comparison of our results with observed molecular clouds reveal that most are compatible with sub-Alfv\'enic models., Comment: Paper accepted for publication in MNRAS

Radiative shock waves in the Cygnus Loop and other supernova remnants show different morphologies in [O III] and H{\alpha} emission. We use HST spectra and narrowband images to study the development of turbulence in the cooling region behind a shock on the west limb of the Cygnus Loop. We refine our earlier estimates of shock parameters that were based upon ground-based spectra, including ram pressure, vorticity and magnetic field strength. We apply several techniques, including Fourier power spectra and the Rolling Hough Transform, to quantify the shape of the rippled shock front as viewed in different emission lines. We assess the relative importance of thermal instabilities, the thin shell instability, upstream density variations, and upstream magnetic field variations in producing the observed structure., Comment: 40 pages, 22 Figures. Accepted for publication in ApJ

The complex interplay of magnetohydrodynamics, gravity, and supersonic turbulence in the interstellar medium (ISM) introduces non-Gaussian structure that can complicate comparison between theory and observation. We show that the Wavelet Scattering Transform (WST), in combination with linear discriminant analysis (LDA), is sensitive to non-Gaussian structure in 2D ISM dust maps. WST-LDA classifies magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence simulations with up to a 97\% true positive rate in our testbed of 8 simulations with varying sonic and Alfv\'{e}nic Mach numbers. We present a side-by-side comparison with two other methods for non-Gaussian characterization, the Reduced Wavelet Scattering Transform (RWST) and the 3-Point Correlation Function (3PCF). We also demonstrate the 3D-WST-LDA and apply it to classification of density fields in position-position-velocity (PPV) space, where density correlations can be studied using velocity coherence as a proxy. WST-LDA is robust to common observational artifacts, such as striping and missing data, while also sensitive enough to extract the net magnetic field direction for sub-Alfv\'{e}nic turbulent density fields. We include a brief analysis of the effect of point spread functions and image pixelization on 2D-WST-LDA applied to density fields, which informs the future goal of applying WST-LDA to 2D or 3D all-sky dust maps to extract hydrodynamic parameters of interest., Comment: 21 pages, 13 figures, submitted to ApJ