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Bungarus multicinctus (B. multicinctus) is one of the top ten venomous snakes in China, ranking first in lethality at 26.9-33.3%. However, to our knowledge, no forensic autopsy-related cases of death from B. multicinctus bite poisoning have been reported. There are surprisingly few reported cases of death from poisoning by other species of neurotoxic snakes. Neurotoxic snake venom is often highly toxic, and death can quickly occur when bitten in the wild if victims are not taken to a doctor in time. We presented a case of an adult female in Fujian Province of China who was bitten by a poisonous snake while digging for bamboo shoots in the mountains and died from the bite of B. multicinctus confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) results. The autopsy's results, histopathological findings, and ELISA results reported here can be helpful for future forensic practice in B. multicinctus venom poisoning; we also briefly review the pathological changes of neurotoxin poisoning, which may be useful in other types of neurotoxin snake venom poisoning.

Bungarus candidus (Linnaeus, 1758) — Erroneous. Malayan Krait Singapore records. Bungarus candidus —Sharma, 1973: 235.—Chou, 1986: 8, 13.—F.L.K. Lim & Lee, 1989: 116.— Gopalakrishnakone, 1990: 3.—K.K.P. Lim & L.M. Chou, 1990: 54.—F.L.K. Lim, 1991: 74.— K.K.P. Lim & F.L.K. Lim, 1992: 87, 148.—L.M. Chou et al., 1994: 105.— David & Vogel, 1996: 143.— Manthey & Grossmann, 1997: 416.—Chan-ard et al., 1999: 37.— Iskandar & Colijn, 2001: 119.—K.P. Lim & F.L.K. Lim, 2002: 148.— de Lang & Vogel, 2005: 259.—N. Baker & K.P. Lim, 2008: 169.— Das, 2010: 313.— Chanhome et al., 2011: 314.—P.K.L. Ng et al., 2011: 302.—N. Baker & K.P. Lim, 2012: 169.— Das, 2012a: 88.— Mohammadi et al., 2014: 21.—Wallach et al., 2014: 128.—Chan-ard et al., 2015: 250.— de Lang, 2017: 238.— Cox et al., 2018: 50.— Das, 2018: 105.—Y. Xie et al., 2018: 109.— Grahadi et al., 2022: 1047, 1049, 1052. “Malayan krait”—Mong & H.H. Tan, 2016: 266. Remarks. All of the publications listed in the chresynonymy report B. candidus as occurring in Singapore but none list any material or specific source for the record. We have also not been able to find any earlier references to B. candidus from Singapore and no specimens exist in museum collections. We suspect inclusion of B. candidus into Singapore’s herpetofauna checklist may stem from confusion with B. fasciatus. A piece of shed skin found at Pulau Tekong in 2002 is said to be of B. candidus, but was not confirmed (K.K.P. Lim unpub. data). Bungarus candidus is distributed from Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam south to Peninsular Malaysia, and Bawean, Bali, Java, Karimunjawa, and Sumatra in Indonesia (Wallach et al. 2014). LKCNHM & NHMUK Museum specimens. Pulau Tekong: ZRC.2.5485 (02-Jul-2002). Additional Singapore museum specimens. No specimens., Published as part of Figueroa, Alex, Low, Martyn E. Y. & Lim, Kelvin K. P., 2023, Singapore's herpetofauna: updated and annotated checklist, history, conservation, and distribution, pp. 1-378 in Zootaxa 5287 (1) on page 273, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5287.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/7960319, {"references":["Gopalakrishnakone, P. (1990) A Colour Guide to Dangerous Animals. Singapore University Press, Singapore, 156 pp.","Lim, K. K. P. & Lim, F. L. K. (1992) A Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Singapore. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore, 160 pp.","Chou L. M., Ng, P. K. L. & Lim, K. K. P. (1994) Animalia. In: Wee, Y. C. & Ng, P. K. L. (Eds.), A First Look at Biodiversity in Singapore. National Council on the Environment, Singapore, pp. 70 - 106.","David, P. & Vogel, G. (1996) The Snakes of Sumatra: An Annotated Checklist and Key with Natural History Notes. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt-am-Main, 260 pp.","Manthey, U. & Grossmann, W. (1997) Amphibien und Reptilian Sudostasien. Natur und Tier, M ¸ nster, 512 pp.","Iskandar, D. T. & Colijn, E. (2001) A Checklist of Southeast Asian and New Guinean Reptiles. Part I. Serpentes. Biodiversity Conservation Project (Indonesian Institute of Sciences - Japan International Cooperation Agency - The Ministry of Forestry). The Gibbon Foundation and Institute of Technology, Bandung, 195 pp.","Lim, K. P. & Lim, F. L. K. (2002) A Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Singapore. Revised Edition. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore, 160 pp.","de Lang, R. & Vogel, G. (2005) The Snakes of Sulawesi: A Field Guide to the Land Snakes of Sulawesi with Identification Keys. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 312 pp.","Das, I. (2010) A Field Guide to the Reptiles of Thailand and South-East Asia. New Holland, London, 376 pp.","Chanhome, L., Cox, M. J., Vasaruchapong, T., Chaiyabutr, N. & Sitprija, V. (2011) Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand. Asian Biomedicine, 5 (3), 311 - 328.","Das, I. (2012 a) A Naturalist's Guide to the Snakes of South-East Asia. John Beaufoy Publishing, Oxford, 160 pp.","Mohammadi, S., Kluever, B. M., Tamashiro, T., Amano, Y. & Hill III, J. G. (2014) Short note spatial and Thermal observations of a Malayan Krait (Bungarus candidus) From Thailand. Tropical Natural History, 14 (1), 21 - 26.","de Lang, R. (2017) The Snakes of Java, Bali and Surrounding Islands. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 435 pp.","Cox, M. J., Hoover, M. F., Chanhome, L., Thirakhupt, K. & Pongcharoen, C. (2018) A Field Guide to the Venomous Snakes of Mainland ASEAN Nations. Parbpim Limited Partnership, Bangkok, ix + 83 pp.","Das, I. (2018) A Naturalist's Guide to the Snakes of Southeast Asia. 2 nd Edition. John Beaufoy Publishing, Oxford, 176 pp.","Grahadi, R., Fatchiyah, F. & Kurniawan, N. (2022) Virtual prediction of potential immunogenic epitope of candoxin protein from Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus) venom. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research, 10 (6), 1046 - 1057. https: // doi. org / 10.56499 / jppres 22.1469 _ 10.6.1046"]}

Bungarus flaviceps Reinhardt, 1843 — Erroneous. Red-headed Krait Singapore records. Bungarus flaviceps flaviceps — Chanhome et al., 2011: 315.— Cox et al., 2018: 52. Remarks. Chanhome et al. (2011) listed Singapore as part of the distribution for B. flaviceps, but we are unsure where they acquired the record from since there are no publications reporting it from Singapore. Cox et al. (2018) likely reference Chanhome et al. (2011). Bungarus flaviceps ranges from southern Myanmar east to southern Vietnam, and south to Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, and Banka, Belitung, Java, Nias, and Sumatra in Indonesia (Wallach et al. 2014). LKCNHM & NHMUK Museum specimens. No specimens. Additional Singapore museum specimens. No specimens. Genus Hydrophis Latreille in Sonnini & Latreille, 1801 (11 species), Published as part of Figueroa, Alex, Low, Martyn E. Y. & Lim, Kelvin K. P., 2023, Singapore's herpetofauna: updated and annotated checklist, history, conservation, and distribution, pp. 1-378 in Zootaxa 5287 (1) on pages 273-274, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5287.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/7960319, {"references":["Chanhome, L., Cox, M. J., Vasaruchapong, T., Chaiyabutr, N. & Sitprija, V. (2011) Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand. Asian Biomedicine, 5 (3), 311 - 328.","Cox, M. J., Hoover, M. F., Chanhome, L., Thirakhupt, K. & Pongcharoen, C. (2018) A Field Guide to the Venomous Snakes of Mainland ASEAN Nations. Parbpim Limited Partnership, Bangkok, ix + 83 pp."]}

Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) — Native. Pseudoboa Fasciata Schneider, 1801: 283–284. Syntypes (2): ZMB 2771–72, by original designation. Type locality: “Indien” (= India); later restricted to “Mansoor Cottah, Bengal, India ” by Russell (1801: 53). Banded Krait (Figure 21F) Singapore records. Bungarus fasciatus —Peters, 1859: 271.— Dennys, 1880a: 3.— Blanford, 1881: 216.— Davison, 1892: 89, 92.— Flower, 1896: 893.— Flower, 1899: 689.—Ridley, 1899: 209.—Sworder, 1923: 71.— Sworder, 1924a: 19, 20 (Pulau Ayer Merbau).—Sworder, 1924b: 22 (Tanglin [= TF]).— Buddle, 1929: 21 (Sembawang Naval Base [= SML]).—Smith, 1930: 67 (“near Singapore town”).—D.S. Johnson, 1964: 27.—Sharma, 1973: 235.—F.L.K. Lim, 1984: 17.—F.L.K. Lim & M.T.-M. Lee, 1989: 115.— Gopalakrishnakone, 1990: 3.—K.K.P. Lim & L.M. Chou, 1990: 54.—F.L.K. Lim, 1991: 74.—D.S. Johnson, 1992: 38.—K.K.P. Lim & F.L.K. Lim, 1992: 86, 148.—L.M. Chou et al., 1994: 105.— David & Vogel, 1996: 144.— Manthey & Grossmann, 1997: 417.— Cox et al., 1998: 30.—Chan-ard et al., 1999: 37.—E.K. Chua, 2000: 118 (Pulau Ubin).— Iskandar & Colijn, 2001: 120.—K.P. Lim & F.L.K. Lim, 2002: 148.—N. Baker & K.P. Lim, 2008: 115, 161.—K.K.P. Lim et al., 2008: 166, 265 (Khatib Bongsu; Lim Chu Kang; Pulau Ubin; Pulau Tekong; Sungei Buloh [SBWR]).—P.K.L. Ng et al., 2008: 168.— Das, 2010: 313.— Chanhome et al., 2011: 315.— P.K.L. Ng et al., 2011: 302.—N. Baker & K.P. Lim, 2012: 115, 161.—de Chambrier et al., 2012: 45.— Das, 2012a: 89.—H.H. Tan, 2013: 2 (Pulau Ubin).—Wallach et al., 2014: 128.—Chan-ard et al., 2015: 250.—K.K.P. Lim et al., 2016: 184 (Pulau Tekong).— Ahsan & Rahman, 2017: 9907.— de Lang, 2017: 245.— Cox et al., 2018: 51.— Das, 2018: 105.—H.Y. Lim, 2019: 128–129 (Chek Jawa Wetlands [PU]).— Charlton, 2020: 224. Bungarus fasciatus fasciatus — de Haas, 1950: 597. “banded krait”—Mong & H.H. Tan, 2016: 266. Remarks. Throughout its range, B. fasciatus inhabits a diverse range of habitats including montane areas (Stuebing et al. 2014). However, in Singapore, B. fasciatus appears restricted mainly to coastal habitats (Baker & Lim 2012) with most observations coming from Pulau Ubin. Bungarus fasciatus was first reported from Singapore by Peters (1859) who listed a specimen at ZMB collected by Jagor. Subsequently, Blanford (1881) examined specimens at the Raffles Museum, and Davison (1892) noted an additional specimen that was mutilated and deposited at the Raffles Museum around that time. No other specimens were recorded until Sworder (1924a) observed one at Pulau Ayer Merbau, and mentioned Smith killed one near Tanglin in 1901 (Sworder 1924b). Shortly after, Buddle (1929) captured one at SNB and killed one near to town (Smith 1930). Bungarus fasciatus was then next reported 61 years later (Table 2) by Lim (1991) who related how a specimen he received was caught in a fishing net along a riverbank. The only other three published observations include one photographed in mangroves at PT in May 2006 (Lim et al. 2016), one crossing a road near mangroves at PU on 18 October 2012 (Tan 2013), and one seemingly foraging in mud lobster mounds on 4 August 2019 at PU (Lim 2019). Figure 21F illustrates one that was rescued from a contractor dormitory next to Ubin Fruit Orchard on PU on 12 January 2018 (I.S. Law pers. comm.). Lim et al. (2008) reported B. fasciatus from KBNP, LCK, PU, and SBWR, but did not provide any specific data, except for the LCK locality which was based on ZRC.2.4658 collected on 1 November 1999. Occurrence. Known mainly from coastal areas in Lim Chu Kang, PU, and PT. Uncommon. Singapore conservation status. Vulnerable. Conservation priority. Highest. IUCN conservation status. Least Concern [2013]. LKCNHM & NHMUK Museum specimens. Singapore (no locality): ZRC.2.6384– ZRC.2.6385 (no date), ZRC.2.6387 (1986); Lim Chu Kang Road [LKC]: ZRC.2.4658 (01-Nov-1999). Additional Singapore museum specimens. Singapore (no locality): NMW, ZMB; Jurong Road [= Tengah Forest]: BPBM. Singapore localities. Khatib Bongsu Nature Park—Lim Chu Kang—Pulau Ayer Merbau*—Pulau Tekong—Pulau Ubin—Sembcorp Marine Ltd.*—Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve—Tyersall Forest*—Tengah Forest. Genus Calliophis Gray, 1835 (3 species) Calliophis Gray, 1835 [in 1832–1835]: pl. 86, fig. 1, caption (type species: Calliophis gracilis Gray, 1835 [in 1832–1835], by monotypy; gender masculine)., Published as part of Figueroa, Alex, Low, Martyn E. Y. & Lim, Kelvin K. P., 2023, Singapore's herpetofauna: updated and annotated checklist, history, conservation, and distribution, pp. 1-378 in Zootaxa 5287 (1) on pages 189-190, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5287.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/7960319, {"references":["Dennys, N. B. (1880 a) The snakes of Singapore I. Singapore Daily Times, 20 December 1880, 2 - 3.","Blanford, W. T. (1881) On a collection of reptiles and frogs chiefly from Singapore. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1881 (1), 215 - 226, pls. 20 - 21. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 101596","Davison, W. (1892) The snakes of Singapore. Singapore and Straits Directory, 1892, 87 - 93.","Flower, S. S. (1896) Notes on a collection of reptiles and batrachians made in the Malay Peninsula in 1895 - 96; with a list of the species recorded from that region. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1896 (4), 856 - 914, pls. 44 - 46.","Flower, S. S. (1899 b) Notes on a second collection of reptiles made in the Malay Peninsula and Siam, from November 1896 - September 1898, with a list of the species recorded from those countries. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1899 (4), 600 - 696, pls. 36 - 37.","Buddle, R. (1929) Snakes of Singapore Island. Kelly & Walsh, Limited, Singapore, 48 pp.","Johnson, D. S. (1964) An Introduction to the Natural History of Singapore. Rayirath (Raybooks) Publications, Singapore, x + 106 pp.","Lim, F. L. K. (1984) Reptile and amphibian encounters. In: Wee, Y. - C. (Ed.), Nature in an Urban Singapore. Proceedings of the Seminar on Nature in an Urban Singapore. Singapore Branch of the Malayan Nature Society, Singapore, pp. 17 - 19.","Gopalakrishnakone, P. (1990) A Colour Guide to Dangerous Animals. Singapore University Press, Singapore, 156 pp.","Johnson, D. S. (1992) Natural History of Singapore. Revised Edition. Tynron Press, Leicestershire, ix + 142 pp.","Lim, K. K. P. & Lim, F. L. K. (1992) A Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Singapore. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore, 160 pp.","Chou L. M., Ng, P. K. L. & Lim, K. K. P. (1994) Animalia. In: Wee, Y. C. & Ng, P. K. L. (Eds.), A First Look at Biodiversity in Singapore. National Council on the Environment, Singapore, pp. 70 - 106.","David, P. & Vogel, G. (1996) The Snakes of Sumatra: An Annotated Checklist and Key with Natural History Notes. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt-am-Main, 260 pp.","Manthey, U. & Grossmann, W. (1997) Amphibien und Reptilian Sudostasien. Natur und Tier, M ¸ nster, 512 pp.","Cox, M. J., van Dijk, P. P., Nabhitabhata, J. & Thirakhupt, K. (1998) A Photographic Guide toSnakes and other Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. New Holland Publishers, London, 144 pp.","Chua, E. K. (2000) Pulau Ubin. Ours to Treasure. Simply Green, Singapore, 140 pp.","Iskandar, D. T. & Colijn, E. (2001) A Checklist of Southeast Asian and New Guinean Reptiles. Part I. Serpentes. Biodiversity Conservation Project (Indonesian Institute of Sciences - Japan International Cooperation Agency - The Ministry of Forestry). The Gibbon Foundation and Institute of Technology, Bandung, 195 pp.","Lim, K. P. & Lim, F. L. K. (2002) A Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Singapore. Revised Edition. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore, 160 pp.","Das, I. (2010) A Field Guide to the Reptiles of Thailand and South-East Asia. New Holland, London, 376 pp.","Chanhome, L., Cox, M. J., Vasaruchapong, T., Chaiyabutr, N. & Sitprija, V. (2011) Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand. Asian Biomedicine, 5 (3), 311 - 328.","Chambrier, A. de, Binh, T. T. & Scholz, T. (2012) Ophiotaenia bungari n. sp. (Cestoda), a parasite of Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider) (Ophidia: Elapidae) from Vietnam, with comments on relative ovarian size as a new and potentially useful diagnostic character for proteocephalidean tapeworms. Systematic Parasitology, 81 (1), 39 - 50. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / s 11230 - 011 - 9320 - 0","Das, I. (2012 a) A Naturalist's Guide to the Snakes of South-East Asia. John Beaufoy Publishing, Oxford, 160 pp.","Lim, K. K. P., Chua, M. A. H. & Lim, N. T. - L. (2016) Freshwater fishes, terrestrial herpetofauna and mammals of Pulau Tekong, Singapore. Nature in Singapore, 9, 165 - 198.","Ahsan, M. F. & Rahman, M. M. (2017) Status, distribution and threats of kraits (Squamata: Elapidae: Bungarus) in Bangladesh. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 9 (3), 9903 - 9910. https: // doi. org / 10.11609 / jott. 2929.9.3.9903 - 9910","de Lang, R. (2017) The Snakes of Java, Bali and Surrounding Islands. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 435 pp.","Cox, M. J., Hoover, M. F., Chanhome, L., Thirakhupt, K. & Pongcharoen, C. (2018) A Field Guide to the Venomous Snakes of Mainland ASEAN Nations. Parbpim Limited Partnership, Bangkok, ix + 83 pp.","Das, I. (2018) A Naturalist's Guide to the Snakes of Southeast Asia. 2 nd Edition. John Beaufoy Publishing, Oxford, 176 pp.","Charlton, T. (2020) A Guide to Snakes of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd., Kota Kinabalu, viii + 299 pp.","de Haas, C. P. J. (1950) Checklist of the snakes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago (Reptiles, Ophidia). Treubia, 20 (3), 511 - 625.","Baker, N. & Lim, K. P. (2012) Wild Animals of Singapore: A Photographic Guide to Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians and Freshwater Fishes. Updated Edition. Draco Publishing and Distribution Pte Ltd and Nature Society, Singapore, 180 pp."]}

Inefficacy and associated risks of current antivenom has raised the need for alternative approaches of snakebite management. Aptamers are one such alternative which is being pursued for therapeutic interventions as well as for design of diagnostic kits due to its high specificity. Present study focussed on designing and validating nucleic acid aptamers against snake venom PLA2, a hydrolytic enzyme present in all venomous snakes. The aptamers were designed by adding nucleic acid chain on the surface of Daboxin P, a major PLA2 enzyme of Daboia russelii venom. Binding characteristics of the aptamers were confirmed by docking to Daboxin P as well as acidic and basic PLA2s from different snake species using in silico docking. The aptamers folded into different tertiary structures and bound to the active and Ca2+ binding site of PLA2 enzymes. Molecular dynamics simulation analysis of Daboxin P-aptamer complexes showed that the complexes were stable in an aqueous environment. The electrophoretic mobility shift assay further confirmed the binding of the synthetic aptamers to Daboxin P and other snake venom PLA2 enzymes. The aptamers inhibited the sPLA2 activity with an IC50 value ranging between 0.52 μM and 0.77 μM as well as the anticoagulant activity of Daboxin P. The aptamers could also inhibit the PLA2 activity of Echis carinatus crude venom and anti-coagulant activity of Bungarus caeruleus crude venom, members of big four snakes. However, the aptamers didn't inhibit fibrinogenolytic or proteolytic activity of big four venom as well as the coagulation and hemolytic activities. Thus, aptamers can be rationally designed to inhibit the biochemical and biological activities of snake venom proteins.

Bungarus multicinctus is one of the top ten venomous snakes in China, and its bite causes acute and severe diseases, but its pathophysiology remains poorly elucidated. Thus, an animal model of Bungarus multicinctus bite was established by intramuscular injection of 30μg/kg of Bungarus multicinctus venom, and then the serum metabolites were subsequently screened, identified and validated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) methods to explore the potential biomakers and possible metabolic pathways. Untargeted metabolomics analysis showed that 36 and 38 endogenous metabolites levels changed in ESI+ and ESI-, respectively, KEGG pathway analysis showed that 5 metabolic pathways, including mineral absorption, central carbon metabolism in cancer, protein digestion and absorption, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis and ABC transporters might be closely related to Bungarus multicinctus bite. Targeted metabolomics analysis showed that there were significant differences in serum D-proline, L-leucine and L-glutamine after Bungarus multicinctus bite (P < 0.05). In addition, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that the diagnostic efficiency of L-Glutamine was superior to other potential biomarkers and the AUC value was 0.944. Moreover, we found evidence for differences in the pathophysiology of glutamine between Bungarus multicinctus bite group and normal group, specifically with the content of glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutaminase (GLS). Taken together, the current study has successfully established an animal model of Bungarus multicinctus bite, and further identified the links between the metabolic perturbations and the pathophysiology and the potential diagnostic biomakers of Bungarus multicinctus bite, which provided valuable insights for studying the mechanism of Bungarus multicinctus bite.

Bungarus andamanensis Biswas and Sanyal, 1978 (Fig. 8A & B, 12C) Material studied: Four adults, CIARI uncatalogued 1–4, from Sippighat, South Andaman (Fig.4G). Morphology: Dorsal scales smooth, in 15:15:15 rows; vertebral scales hexagonal and enlarged; ventrals 188- 196; subcaudals 42–45, undivided; anal single; supralabials 7, 3–4 entering orbit; infralabials 7, 1–4 touching genials; preocular 1; postoculars 2; loreal absent; temporals 1+2. Dorsum lustrous black with 36–45 pale yellow to creamy white bands all over the body and 8–12 bands on the tail. Hemipenis everted in one specimen; organ short, 6 mm long, of conical shape, longer than broad and not lobed. Distal end much broader than proximal end, with intense flounces towards the tip pointing posteriorly. Sulcus spermaticus visible as a groove ventrally. Distribution: An endemic species. Several individuals were encountered in a variety of habitats ranging from evergreen forests, secondary forests, and mangrove swamps to human habitations on South Andaman, Havelock, Long Island, Little Andaman, Middle and North Andaman Islands. Often seen near human habitation close to forests and has been seen crossing roads at night. One gravid female was recorded in December. Status: Common., Published as part of Chandramouli, S. R., 2022, Snake fauna of the Andaman Islands, Bay of Bengal-A review of species richness taxonomy, distribution, natural history and conservation status, pp. 301-331 in Zootaxa 5209 (3) on page 312, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5209.3.1, http://zenodo.org/record/7329609, {"references":["Biswas, S. & Sanyal, D. P. (1978) A new species of krait of the genus Bungarus Daudin, 1803 (Serpents: Elapidae) from the Andaman Island. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 75 (1), 179 - 183."]}

Objectives: The present study focuses on development of novel Metal-Herbal Nano composite (MHNC) formulation against Naja naja and Bungarus Caeruleus venoms on animal models. Methods: The venoms were procured from Irula snake catchers society in lyophilised forms. Herbal-metal nanocomposites were prepared in 1:1 combinations. Single strength concentration of Leucas zeylanica extracts and copper oxide metal nanoparticles was used to attain these ratio’s. In vivo venom neutralization analysis was carried out in Swiss albino mice. The LD50 and ED50 of the MHNC were determined. Results: The LD50 of the Naja naja venom was observed to be 0.19μg/g and 0.174μg/g for Bungarus Caeruleus venom. The ED50 of the MHNC against Naja naja venom was observed to be 14.22mg and 63.39mg for Bungarus Caeruleus venom. Conclusion: The MHNC developed in this study has significant venom neutralization potential against Naja naja and Bungarus Caeruleus venoms. Therefore, the MHNC can be used for development of anti-venom drugs.

Background Venomous snake bites cause acute medical emergencies and are fatal. India accounts for large proportion of snake-bite deaths globally. Medically important ‘BIG FOUR’ snakes of India are Bungarus caeruleus (krait), Naja naja (cobra), Echis carinatus (saw-scaled viper) and Daboia russelii (Russell's viper). Polyherbal formulations have been proved to be effective in treatment of diseases than a single formulation. Objective(s) To evaluate aqueous ethanolic extract cocktail of Azadirachata indica, Butea monosperma, Citrus limon, Clerodendrum serratum and Areca catechu for antidote potential against BIG FOUR venoms in ex vivo and in vivo model. Materials and methods Anti-hemorrhagic and venom neutralization studies were performed in seven-day old chick embryo model for ex vivo studies. In vivo studies were performed using male Swiss albino mice for antivenom potential of herbal cocktail by performing anti-edematic, anti-hemorrhagic, anti-myotoxic activity, and venom neutralization. Results Herbal cocktail exhibited differential venom inhibition potential against four venoms tested. Hemorrhagic activity was completely neutralized by the herbal cocktail; myotoxic activities of krait and Russell's viper venom were neutralized; while anti-edematic activity was observed for krait and cobra venom. Herbal cocktail completely neutralized venom lethality (3∗LD50) of krait and saw-scaled viper venom. Conclusion Inhibitions of various venom components of all four venoms suggests presence of phytochemicals in herbal cocktail with therapeutic properties. Further studies would help in the development of a formulation as a first-aid towards treatment of snake bite victims.

Snakebite envenoming is a serious and life-threatening but neglected problem in the tropics. The focus in the Indian subcontinent is usually on the Indian cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell's viper (Daboia russelii), and Indian saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus). The Indian polyvalent antivenom contains hyperimmunized horse antibodies against only these 4 species. However, regional intraspecific variations are important in viper envenomings, leading to marked differences in clinical presentation and response to the available polyvalent antivenom. Echis carinatus sochureki, a subspecies of Echis carinatus, has been linked to serious morbidity in the Thar Desert regions of Rajasthan, although consistent reports are lacking. We report a patient with prolonged venom-induced consumption coagulopathy owing to Echis carinatus sochureki envenoming who did not respond to Indian polyvalent antivenom in Jodhpur, India. Features of local and hemotoxic envenoming resolved after a week with supportive care. Echis sochureki venom has been shown to be different from Echis carinatus in terms of composition and in vitro neutralization by antivenom. Clinicians in the tropical desert regions must suspect Echis sochureki envenoming in the setting of nonresponsiveness to Indian polyvalent antivenom. This will help optimize antivenom use in these patients, preventing potentially life-threatening antivenom associated reactions. Because the usefulness of Indian polyvalent antivenom appears to be limited in this setting, there is an urgent need to advocate for region-specific antivenom or monovalent antivenom for this area.

India has recorded the maximum snakebite deaths in the world. Intravenous administration of polyvalent antivenom (PAV) raised against the 'Big Four' venomous snakes of India (Naja naja, Daboia russelli, Echis carinatus, and Bungarus caeraleus) is the only choice of treatment. The WHO has recommended the evaluation of quality and safety of commercial antivenom by in vitro laboratory tests prior to their pre-clinical evaluation in animal model and therapeutic use. Therefore, in this study an attempt has been made to evaluate the quality of commercial polyvalent antivenom produced in India by simple, and affordable laboratory tests. Proteomic analysis revealed that PAVs contained 78.7-94.8% IgG/F(ab')2 and small quantities of plasma proteins. The PAVs showed batch-to-batch variations with varying amounts of undigested IgG and its aggregates, and moderate complement activation. However, absence of IgE, negligible endotoxin contamination, and recommended limit of preservative (cresol) in PAVs were observed. The PAVs contain varying proportions and least amount of venom-specific antibodies against venoms of the 'Big Four' snakes from different locales of India, and against eastern India N. kaouthia venom, respectively. The importance of independent in vitro laboratory tests for the quality control and safety assessment for improving the quality of Indian commercial PAV is reinforced.

Kraits of the genus Bungarus Daudin 1803 are widely known venomous snakes distributed from Iran to China and Indonesia. Here, we use a combination of mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphological data to describe a new species from Yingjiang County, Yunnan Province, China: Bungarus suzhenaesp. nov. Phylogenetically, this species forms a monophyletic lineage sister to the Bungarus candidus/multicinctus/wanghaotingi complex based on cyt b and ND4 genes but forms a sister species pair with the species B. magnimaculatus Wall & Evans, 1901 based on COI gene fragments. Morphologically, B. suzhenaesp. nov. is similar to the B. candidus/multicinctus/wanghaotingi complex but differs from these taxa by a combination of dental morphology, squamation, coloration pattern, as well as hemipenial morphology. A detailed description of the cranial osteology of the new species is given based on micro-CT tomography images. We revised the morphological characters of B. candidus/multicinctus/wanghaotingi complex and verified the validity of three species in this complex. The distribution of these species was revised; the records of B. candidus in China should be attributed to B. wanghaotingi. We also provide an updated key to species of Bungarus.

There are an estimated 5.4 million snakebite cases every year. People with snakebite envenoming suffer from severe complications, or even death. Although some review articles cover several topics of snakebite envenoming, a review of the cases regarding cerebral complications, especially rare syndromes, is lacking. Here, we overview 35 cases of snakebite by front-fanged snakes, including Bothrops, Daboia, Cerastes, Deinagkistrodon, Trimeresurus, and Crotalus in the Viperidae family; Bungarus and Naja in the Elapidae family, and Homoroselaps (rare cases) in the Lamprophiidae family. We also review three rare cases of snakebite by rear-fanged snakes, including Oxybelis and Leptodeira in the Colubridae family. In the cases of viper bites, most patients (17/24) were diagnosed with ischemic stroke and intracranial hemorrhage, leading to six deaths. We then discuss the potential underlying molecular mechanisms that cause these complications. In cases of elapid bites, neural, cardiac, and ophthalmic disorders are the main complications. Due to the small amount of venom injection and the inability to deep bite, all the rear-fanged snakebites did not develop any severe complications. To date, antivenom (AV) is the most effective therapy for snakebite envenoming. In the six cases of viper and elapid bites that did not receive AV, three cases (two by viper and one by elapid) resulted in death. This indicates that AV treatment is the key to survival after a venomous snakebite. Lastly, we also discuss several studies of therapeutic agents against snakebite-envenoming-induced complications, which could be potential adjuvants along with AV treatment. This article organizes the diagnosis of hemotoxic and neurotoxic envenoming, which may help ER doctors determine the treatment for unidentified snakebite.

Snake-bite gives rise to significant socio-economic, and limitations of antivenom have raised the necessity for the development of novel neutralising compounds. The present study concentrates on evaluating the neutralisation potential of Copper nanoparticles, Leucas zeylanica leaf extracts and Metal-Herbal Nanocomposite (MHNC) against Naja naja and Bungarus caeruleus venoms. The antigenic potency of snake venoms was determined by gel precipitation test. Leucas zeylanica leaves were used for extraction, and extracts were further purified by column chromatography. Size of Leucas zeylanica extract was found to be 86.7±7.1nm and 249.4±27.3nm for MHNC. Zeta potential values determined the Stability of the MHNC. MHNC showed higher neutralisation to venoms than the Leucas zeylanica extracts. In direct hemolysis, the efficiency of Naja naja and Bungarus caeruleus venoms treated with Leucas zeylanica leaf extract was found to be 30% and 27.2%, whereas MHNC showed 16.1% against Naja naja venom and 17.1% Bungarus caeruleus venom. From Indirect analysis, Naja naja and Bungarus caeruleus venom were able to produce 28mm and 26mm diameter hemolytic halo zones. On treatment with MHNC, the zones were reduced to 15mm and 11mm than Leucas zeylanica extract. This result indicates the MHNC can be used for the treatment of snake bites.

Objective We aimed to investigate the effects of snake-derived phospholipase A2 inhibitor (PLA2) from Sinonatrix percarinata and Bungarus multicinctus on acute pancreatitis in vivo and in vitro and assess the mechanisms. Methods The levels of platelet-activating factor (PAF) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were detected by ELISA, and the characteristics of autophagy were detected by transmission electron microscopy and Western blotting (LC3, p62, and ATG5). Results In vitro experiments showed that PLA2 treatment caused obvious formation of autophagic bodies. By contrast, Sinonatrix and Bungarus peptides reduced the number of autophagic bodies. The concentrations of PAF and TNF-α, and the expressions of p62, autophagy-related 5 (ATG5), and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3)II/LC3I in the PLA2-treated group were significantly higher than in the control group (P

Background: Deinagkistrodon acutus (D. acutus) and Bungarus multicinctus (B. multicinctus) as traditional medicines have been used for hundreds of years in China. The venoms of these two species have strong toxicity on the victims. Objective: The objective of this study is to reveal the profile of venom proteins and peptides of D. acutus and B. multicinctus. Method: Ultrafiltration, SDS-PAGE coupled with in-gel tryptic digestion and Liquid Chromatography- Electrospray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) were used to characterize proteins and peptides of venoms of D. acutus and B. multicinctus. Results: In the D. acutus venom, 67 proteins (16 protein families) were identified, and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs, 38.0%) and snake venom C-type lectins (snaclecs, 36.7%) were dominated proteins. In the B. multicinctus venom, 47 proteins (15 protein families) were identified, and three-finger toxins (3FTxs, 36.3%) and Kunitz-type Serine Protease Inhibitors (KSPIs, 32.8%) were major components. In addition, both venoms contained small amounts of other proteins, such as Snake Venom Serine Proteinases (SVSPs), Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), Cysteine-Rich Secreted Proteins (CRISPs), 5'nucleotidases (5'NUCs), Phospholipases B (PLBs), Phosphodiesterases (PDEs), Phospholipase A2 Inhibitors (PLIs), Dipeptidyl Peptidases IV (DPP IVs), L-amino Acid Oxidases (LAAOs) and Angiotensin-Converting Enzymes (ACEs). Each venom also had its unique proteins, Nerve Growth Factors (NGFs) and Hyaluronidases (HYs) in D. acutus, and Cobra Venom Factors (CVFs) in B. multicinctus. In the peptidomics, 1543 and 250 peptides were identified in the venoms of D. acutus and B. multicinctus, respectively. Some peptides showed high similarity with neuropeptides, ACE inhibitory peptides, Bradykinin- Potentiating Peptides (BPPs), LAAOs and movement related peptides. Conclusion: Characterization of venom proteins and peptides of D. acutus and B. multicinctus will be helpful for the treatment of envenomation and drug discovery.

Identification of snake venoms is a vital step in the treatment of fatal snakebites. In this study, we use the gold-thiolate interaction between a cysteine residue and gold nanoparticles to establish a SERS method for the differentiation of the venoms of Trimeresurus stejnegeri and Bungarus multicinctus. We confirm the preference of gold nanoparticles over silver for the SERS study of snake venoms by a binding experiment that also functions to differentiate the two venom samples by colorimetry and UV-vis spectroscopy. We report the SERS spectra of Trimeresurus stejnegeri and Bungarus multicinctus venoms for the first time. The spectra display distinct SERS signatures of the snake venoms on bone-shaped gold nanoparticles made with a house recipe. These signatures correlate to selected segments of the venom proteins due to the anchoring effect of the gold-cysteine bond. The method is quick as it accomplishes in situ isolation of the structure of interest to avoid tedious purification of the samples. The location of the interactive cysteine residue makes a novel characteristic of proteins in general.

Bungarus multicinctus is one of the top ten venomous snakes in China. Its venom is mainly neurotoxin-based. Novel antivenom drugs need to be further researched and developed.This study aimed to explore the molecular mechanism of Cynanchum paniculatum in treating Bungarus multicinctus bites based on network pharmacology.Seven potential active components (cynapanoside C, cynatratoside B, tomentolide A, sitosterol, sarcostin, tomentogenin, and paeonol) and 286 drug targets were obtained, including 30 key targets for the treatment of bungarotoxin toxicity. The active components mainly acted on PIK3CA, MAPK1, MAP2K1, JAK2, FYN, ACHE, CHRNA7, CHRNA4, and CHRNB2, and they antagonized the inhibitory effect of bungarotoxin on the nervous system through cholinergic synapses and the neurotrophin signaling pathway.Cynanchum paniculatum exerts a therapeutic effect on Bungarus multicinctus bites through multiple active components, multiple targets, and multiple pathways. The findings provide a theoretical basis for the extraction of active components of Cynanchum paniculatum and for related antivenom experiments.

Sunagar et al. (2021: 1) erected the new snake species Bungarus romulusi on the basis of the molecular study of mitochondrial markers, venom proteomics and venom gland transcriptomics. Unfortunately, this new specific nomen is nomenclaturally unavailable, and should therefore not be used as valid as long as it has not been properly published.

South Asian subcontinent is among the highest burden areas in respect of snake bite. India is commonest place in this subcontinent with mortality following snake envenomation. The four most important venomous snakes in India are cobra (Naja naja) and common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), which are neurotoxic, and the saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) and Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), which are hemotoxic1. Various autonomic dysfunction following neuro-paralytic envenomation with krait and cobra has been reported. Timely recognition and appropriate management of snake envenomation along with autonomic dysfunction helps to reduce morbidity and mortality. Keywords: Autonomic dysfunction, hypertension, antisnake venom, blood pressure.

Snakebites are common in India and the most common neurotoxic snakebites in India are due to Common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and cobra (Naja naja). Severe envenomation may mimic brain death or a locked-in state with flaccid paralysis in a descending manner and total ophthalmoplegia. Usually, patients who receive timely antivenom and ventilator support recover completely without any sequalae. We are reporting two cases of krait bite with an unusually long period of flaccid paralysis, which required prolong ventilation. While case 1 required 10 days of mechanical ventilation followed by 5 days of non-invasive ventilation, case 2 required 11 days of mechanical ventilation followed by 5 days of non-invasive ventilation. Both the cases had delayed recovery and residual weakness at 3-month follow up. These case reports suggest that krait bite may cause prolong neuromuscular weakness in children, which has implications for both acute and chronic management.

To search for compounds with antiprotozoal activity, effects of snake venoms on the ciliates Tetrahymena pyriformis was studied. T. pyriformis from subkingdom of Protozoa, including the protozoal pathogens, was used as a model organism to select the venoms that are the most active against parasitic protozoans. Various concentrations of venoms were added to the cells, and the cells that survived after 24 h were counted. Among the six snake species from the Viperidae family, the venom of the viper Vipera berus, which completely killed the cells at 49 μg/mL, was the most active. Among four species from the Elapidae family, the previously studied cobra venoms containing cytotoxins with strong antiprotozoal activity as well as the venom of krait Bungarus multicinctus (10 μg/mL) were the most active. The venoms of the pit vipers and Nikolsky's viper did not show any activity at 12.5 mg/mL. Thus, the venoms of V. berus and B. multicinctus are promising for the isolation of new antiprotozoal compounds.